[pf3gnuchains/gcc-fork.git] / gcc / doc / extend.texi

@c Copyright (C) 1988, 1989, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001,
@c 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009
@c Free Software Foundation, Inc.

@c This is part of the GCC manual.
@c For copying conditions, see the file gcc.texi.

@node C Extensions
@chapter Extensions to the C Language Family
@cindex extensions, C language
@cindex C language extensions

@opindex pedantic
GNU C provides several language features not found in ISO standard C@.
(The @option{-pedantic} option directs GCC to print a warning message if
any of these features is used.)  To test for the availability of these
features in conditional compilation, check for a predefined macro
@code{__GNUC__}, which is always defined under GCC@.

These extensions are available in C and Objective-C@.  Most of them are
also available in C++.  @xref{C++ Extensions,,Extensions to the
C++ Language}, for extensions that apply @emph{only} to C++.

Some features that are in ISO C99 but not C89 or C++ are also, as
extensions, accepted by GCC in C89 mode and in C++.

@menu
* Statement Exprs::     Putting statements and declarations inside expressions.
* Local Labels::        Labels local to a block.
* Labels as Values::    Getting pointers to labels, and computed gotos.
* Nested Functions::    As in Algol and Pascal, lexical scoping of functions.
* Constructing Calls::  Dispatching a call to another function.
* Typeof::              @code{typeof}: referring to the type of an expression.
* Conditionals::        Omitting the middle operand of a @samp{?:} expression.
* Long Long::           Double-word integers---@code{long long int}.
* Complex::             Data types for complex numbers.
* Floating Types::      Additional Floating Types.
* Half-Precision::      Half-Precision Floating Point.
* Decimal Float::       Decimal Floating Types. 
* Hex Floats::          Hexadecimal floating-point constants.
* Fixed-Point::         Fixed-Point Types.
* Zero Length::         Zero-length arrays.
* Variable Length::     Arrays whose length is computed at run time.
* Empty Structures::    Structures with no members.
* Variadic Macros::     Macros with a variable number of arguments.
* Escaped Newlines::    Slightly looser rules for escaped newlines.
* Subscripting::        Any array can be subscripted, even if not an lvalue.
* Pointer Arith::       Arithmetic on @code{void}-pointers and function pointers.
* Initializers::        Non-constant initializers.
* Compound Literals::   Compound literals give structures, unions
                        or arrays as values.
* Designated Inits::    Labeling elements of initializers.
* Cast to Union::       Casting to union type from any member of the union.
* Case Ranges::         `case 1 ... 9' and such.
* Mixed Declarations::  Mixing declarations and code.
* Function Attributes:: Declaring that functions have no side effects,
                        or that they can never return.
* Attribute Syntax::    Formal syntax for attributes.
* Function Prototypes:: Prototype declarations and old-style definitions.
* C++ Comments::        C++ comments are recognized.
* Dollar Signs::        Dollar sign is allowed in identifiers.
* Character Escapes::   @samp{\e} stands for the character @key{ESC}.
* Variable Attributes:: Specifying attributes of variables.
* Type Attributes::     Specifying attributes of types.
* Alignment::           Inquiring about the alignment of a type or variable.
* Inline::              Defining inline functions (as fast as macros).
* Extended Asm::        Assembler instructions with C expressions as operands.
                        (With them you can define ``built-in'' functions.)
* Constraints::         Constraints for asm operands
* Asm Labels::          Specifying the assembler name to use for a C symbol.
* Explicit Reg Vars::   Defining variables residing in specified registers.
* Alternate Keywords::  @code{__const__}, @code{__asm__}, etc., for header files.
* Incomplete Enums::    @code{enum foo;}, with details to follow.
* Function Names::      Printable strings which are the name of the current
                        function.
* Return Address::      Getting the return or frame address of a function.
* Vector Extensions::   Using vector instructions through built-in functions.
* Offsetof::            Special syntax for implementing @code{offsetof}.
* Atomic Builtins::     Built-in functions for atomic memory access.
* Object Size Checking:: Built-in functions for limited buffer overflow
                        checking.
* Other Builtins::      Other built-in functions.
* Target Builtins::     Built-in functions specific to particular targets.
* Target Format Checks:: Format checks specific to particular targets.
* Pragmas::             Pragmas accepted by GCC.
* Unnamed Fields::      Unnamed struct/union fields within structs/unions.
* Thread-Local::        Per-thread variables.
* Binary constants::    Binary constants using the @samp{0b} prefix.
@end menu

@node Statement Exprs
@section Statements and Declarations in Expressions
@cindex statements inside expressions
@cindex declarations inside expressions
@cindex expressions containing statements
@cindex macros, statements in expressions

@c the above section title wrapped and causes an underfull hbox.. i
@c changed it from "within" to "in". --mew 4feb93
A compound statement enclosed in parentheses may appear as an expression
in GNU C@.  This allows you to use loops, switches, and local variables
within an expression.

Recall that a compound statement is a sequence of statements surrounded
by braces; in this construct, parentheses go around the braces.  For
example:

@smallexample
(@{ int y = foo (); int z;
   if (y > 0) z = y;
   else z = - y;
   z; @})
@end smallexample

@noindent
is a valid (though slightly more complex than necessary) expression
for the absolute value of @code{foo ()}.

The last thing in the compound statement should be an expression
followed by a semicolon; the value of this subexpression serves as the
value of the entire construct.  (If you use some other kind of statement
last within the braces, the construct has type @code{void}, and thus
effectively no value.)

This feature is especially useful in making macro definitions ``safe'' (so
that they evaluate each operand exactly once).  For example, the
``maximum'' function is commonly defined as a macro in standard C as
follows:

@smallexample
#define max(a,b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
@end smallexample

@noindent
@cindex side effects, macro argument
But this definition computes either @var{a} or @var{b} twice, with bad
results if the operand has side effects.  In GNU C, if you know the
type of the operands (here taken as @code{int}), you can define
the macro safely as follows:

@smallexample
#define maxint(a,b) \
  (@{int _a = (a), _b = (b); _a > _b ? _a : _b; @})
@end smallexample

Embedded statements are not allowed in constant expressions, such as
the value of an enumeration constant, the width of a bit-field, or
the initial value of a static variable.

If you don't know the type of the operand, you can still do this, but you
must use @code{typeof} (@pxref{Typeof}).

In G++, the result value of a statement expression undergoes array and
function pointer decay, and is returned by value to the enclosing
expression.  For instance, if @code{A} is a class, then

@smallexample
        A a;

        (@{a;@}).Foo ()
@end smallexample

@noindent
will construct a temporary @code{A} object to hold the result of the
statement expression, and that will be used to invoke @code{Foo}.
Therefore the @code{this} pointer observed by @code{Foo} will not be the
address of @code{a}.

Any temporaries created within a statement within a statement expression
will be destroyed at the statement's end.  This makes statement
expressions inside macros slightly different from function calls.  In
the latter case temporaries introduced during argument evaluation will
be destroyed at the end of the statement that includes the function
call.  In the statement expression case they will be destroyed during
the statement expression.  For instance,

@smallexample
#define macro(a)  (@{__typeof__(a) b = (a); b + 3; @})
template<typename T> T function(T a) @{ T b = a; return b + 3; @}

void foo ()
@{
  macro (X ());
  function (X ());
@}
@end smallexample

@noindent
will have different places where temporaries are destroyed.  For the
@code{macro} case, the temporary @code{X} will be destroyed just after
the initialization of @code{b}.  In the @code{function} case that
temporary will be destroyed when the function returns.

These considerations mean that it is probably a bad idea to use
statement-expressions of this form in header files that are designed to
work with C++.  (Note that some versions of the GNU C Library contained
header files using statement-expression that lead to precisely this
bug.)

Jumping into a statement expression with @code{goto} or using a
@code{switch} statement outside the statement expression with a
@code{case} or @code{default} label inside the statement expression is
not permitted.  Jumping into a statement expression with a computed
@code{goto} (@pxref{Labels as Values}) yields undefined behavior.
Jumping out of a statement expression is permitted, but if the
statement expression is part of a larger expression then it is
unspecified which other subexpressions of that expression have been
evaluated except where the language definition requires certain
subexpressions to be evaluated before or after the statement
expression.  In any case, as with a function call the evaluation of a
statement expression is not interleaved with the evaluation of other
parts of the containing expression.  For example,

@smallexample
  foo (), ((@{ bar1 (); goto a; 0; @}) + bar2 ()), baz();
@end smallexample

@noindent
will call @code{foo} and @code{bar1} and will not call @code{baz} but
may or may not call @code{bar2}.  If @code{bar2} is called, it will be
called after @code{foo} and before @code{bar1}

@node Local Labels
@section Locally Declared Labels
@cindex local labels
@cindex macros, local labels

GCC allows you to declare @dfn{local labels} in any nested block
scope.  A local label is just like an ordinary label, but you can
only reference it (with a @code{goto} statement, or by taking its
address) within the block in which it was declared.

A local label declaration looks like this:

@smallexample
__label__ @var{label};
@end smallexample

@noindent
or

@smallexample
__label__ @var{label1}, @var{label2}, /* @r{@dots{}} */;
@end smallexample

Local label declarations must come at the beginning of the block,
before any ordinary declarations or statements.

The label declaration defines the label @emph{name}, but does not define
the label itself.  You must do this in the usual way, with
@code{@var{label}:}, within the statements of the statement expression.

The local label feature is useful for complex macros.  If a macro
contains nested loops, a @code{goto} can be useful for breaking out of
them.  However, an ordinary label whose scope is the whole function
cannot be used: if the macro can be expanded several times in one
function, the label will be multiply defined in that function.  A
local label avoids this problem.  For example:

@smallexample
#define SEARCH(value, array, target)              \
do @{                                              \
  __label__ found;                                \
  typeof (target) _SEARCH_target = (target);      \
  typeof (*(array)) *_SEARCH_array = (array);     \
  int i, j;                                       \
  int value;                                      \
  for (i = 0; i < max; i++)                       \
    for (j = 0; j < max; j++)                     \
      if (_SEARCH_array[i][j] == _SEARCH_target)  \
        @{ (value) = i; goto found; @}              \
  (value) = -1;                                   \
 found:;                                          \
@} while (0)
@end smallexample

This could also be written using a statement-expression:

@smallexample
#define SEARCH(array, target)                     \
(@{                                                \
  __label__ found;                                \
  typeof (target) _SEARCH_target = (target);      \
  typeof (*(array)) *_SEARCH_array = (array);     \
  int i, j;                                       \
  int value;                                      \
  for (i = 0; i < max; i++)                       \
    for (j = 0; j < max; j++)                     \
      if (_SEARCH_array[i][j] == _SEARCH_target)  \
        @{ value = i; goto found; @}                \
  value = -1;                                     \
 found:                                           \
  value;                                          \
@})
@end smallexample

Local label declarations also make the labels they declare visible to
nested functions, if there are any.  @xref{Nested Functions}, for details.

@node Labels as Values
@section Labels as Values
@cindex labels as values
@cindex computed gotos
@cindex goto with computed label
@cindex address of a label

You can get the address of a label defined in the current function
(or a containing function) with the unary operator @samp{&&}.  The
value has type @code{void *}.  This value is a constant and can be used
wherever a constant of that type is valid.  For example:

@smallexample
void *ptr;
/* @r{@dots{}} */
ptr = &&foo;
@end smallexample

To use these values, you need to be able to jump to one.  This is done
with the computed goto statement@footnote{The analogous feature in
Fortran is called an assigned goto, but that name seems inappropriate in
C, where one can do more than simply store label addresses in label
variables.}, @code{goto *@var{exp};}.  For example,

@smallexample
goto *ptr;
@end smallexample

@noindent
Any expression of type @code{void *} is allowed.

One way of using these constants is in initializing a static array that
will serve as a jump table:

@smallexample
static void *array[] = @{ &&foo, &&bar, &&hack @};
@end smallexample

Then you can select a label with indexing, like this:

@smallexample
goto *array[i];
@end smallexample

@noindent
Note that this does not check whether the subscript is in bounds---array
indexing in C never does that.

Such an array of label values serves a purpose much like that of the
@code{switch} statement.  The @code{switch} statement is cleaner, so
use that rather than an array unless the problem does not fit a
@code{switch} statement very well.

Another use of label values is in an interpreter for threaded code.
The labels within the interpreter function can be stored in the
threaded code for super-fast dispatching.

You may not use this mechanism to jump to code in a different function.
If you do that, totally unpredictable things will happen.  The best way to
avoid this is to store the label address only in automatic variables and
never pass it as an argument.

An alternate way to write the above example is

@smallexample
static const int array[] = @{ &&foo - &&foo, &&bar - &&foo,
                             &&hack - &&foo @};
goto *(&&foo + array[i]);
@end smallexample

@noindent
This is more friendly to code living in shared libraries, as it reduces
the number of dynamic relocations that are needed, and by consequence,
allows the data to be read-only.

The @code{&&foo} expressions for the same label might have different
values if the containing function is inlined or cloned.  If a program
relies on them being always the same,
@code{__attribute__((__noinline__,__noclone__))} should be used to
prevent inlining and cloning.  If @code{&&foo} is used in a static
variable initializer, inlining and cloning is forbidden.

@node Nested Functions
@section Nested Functions
@cindex nested functions
@cindex downward funargs
@cindex thunks

A @dfn{nested function} is a function defined inside another function.
(Nested functions are not supported for GNU C++.)  The nested function's
name is local to the block where it is defined.  For example, here we
define a nested function named @code{square}, and call it twice:

@smallexample
@group
foo (double a, double b)
@{
  double square (double z) @{ return z * z; @}

  return square (a) + square (b);
@}
@end group
@end smallexample

The nested function can access all the variables of the containing
function that are visible at the point of its definition.  This is
called @dfn{lexical scoping}.  For example, here we show a nested
function which uses an inherited variable named @code{offset}:

@smallexample
@group
bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
@{
  int access (int *array, int index)
    @{ return array[index + offset]; @}
  int i;
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
  for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
    /* @r{@dots{}} */ access (array, i) /* @r{@dots{}} */
@}
@end group
@end smallexample

Nested function definitions are permitted within functions in the places
where variable definitions are allowed; that is, in any block, mixed
with the other declarations and statements in the block.

It is possible to call the nested function from outside the scope of its
name by storing its address or passing the address to another function:

@smallexample
hack (int *array, int size)
@{
  void store (int index, int value)
    @{ array[index] = value; @}

  intermediate (store, size);
@}
@end smallexample

Here, the function @code{intermediate} receives the address of
@code{store} as an argument.  If @code{intermediate} calls @code{store},
the arguments given to @code{store} are used to store into @code{array}.
But this technique works only so long as the containing function
(@code{hack}, in this example) does not exit.

If you try to call the nested function through its address after the
containing function has exited, all hell will break loose.  If you try
to call it after a containing scope level has exited, and if it refers
to some of the variables that are no longer in scope, you may be lucky,
but it's not wise to take the risk.  If, however, the nested function
does not refer to anything that has gone out of scope, you should be
safe.

GCC implements taking the address of a nested function using a technique
called @dfn{trampolines}.  This technique was described in 
@cite{Lexical Closures for C++} (Thomas M. Breuel, USENIX
C++ Conference Proceedings, October 17-21, 1988).

A nested function can jump to a label inherited from a containing
function, provided the label was explicitly declared in the containing
function (@pxref{Local Labels}).  Such a jump returns instantly to the
containing function, exiting the nested function which did the
@code{goto} and any intermediate functions as well.  Here is an example:

@smallexample
@group
bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
@{
  __label__ failure;
  int access (int *array, int index)
    @{
      if (index > size)
        goto failure;
      return array[index + offset];
    @}
  int i;
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
  for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
    /* @r{@dots{}} */ access (array, i) /* @r{@dots{}} */
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
  return 0;

 /* @r{Control comes here from @code{access}
    if it detects an error.}  */
 failure:
  return -1;
@}
@end group
@end smallexample

A nested function always has no linkage.  Declaring one with
@code{extern} or @code{static} is erroneous.  If you need to declare the nested function
before its definition, use @code{auto} (which is otherwise meaningless
for function declarations).

@smallexample
bar (int *array, int offset, int size)
@{
  __label__ failure;
  auto int access (int *, int);
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
  int access (int *array, int index)
    @{
      if (index > size)
        goto failure;
      return array[index + offset];
    @}
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
@}
@end smallexample

@node Constructing Calls
@section Constructing Function Calls
@cindex constructing calls
@cindex forwarding calls

Using the built-in functions described below, you can record
the arguments a function received, and call another function
with the same arguments, without knowing the number or types
of the arguments.

You can also record the return value of that function call,
and later return that value, without knowing what data type
the function tried to return (as long as your caller expects
that data type).

However, these built-in functions may interact badly with some
sophisticated features or other extensions of the language.  It
is, therefore, not recommended to use them outside very simple
functions acting as mere forwarders for their arguments.

@deftypefn {Built-in Function} {void *} __builtin_apply_args ()
This built-in function returns a pointer to data
describing how to perform a call with the same arguments as were passed
to the current function.

The function saves the arg pointer register, structure value address,
and all registers that might be used to pass arguments to a function
into a block of memory allocated on the stack.  Then it returns the
address of that block.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {Built-in Function} {void *} __builtin_apply (void (*@var{function})(), void *@var{arguments}, size_t @var{size})
This built-in function invokes @var{function}
with a copy of the parameters described by @var{arguments}
and @var{size}.

The value of @var{arguments} should be the value returned by
@code{__builtin_apply_args}.  The argument @var{size} specifies the size
of the stack argument data, in bytes.

This function returns a pointer to data describing
how to return whatever value was returned by @var{function}.  The data
is saved in a block of memory allocated on the stack.

It is not always simple to compute the proper value for @var{size}.  The
value is used by @code{__builtin_apply} to compute the amount of data
that should be pushed on the stack and copied from the incoming argument
area.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {Built-in Function} {void} __builtin_return (void *@var{result})
This built-in function returns the value described by @var{result} from
the containing function.  You should specify, for @var{result}, a value
returned by @code{__builtin_apply}.
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {Built-in Function} __builtin_va_arg_pack ()
This built-in function represents all anonymous arguments of an inline
function.  It can be used only in inline functions which will be always
inlined, never compiled as a separate function, such as those using
@code{__attribute__ ((__always_inline__))} or
@code{__attribute__ ((__gnu_inline__))} extern inline functions.
It must be only passed as last argument to some other function
with variable arguments.  This is useful for writing small wrapper
inlines for variable argument functions, when using preprocessor
macros is undesirable.  For example:
@smallexample
extern int myprintf (FILE *f, const char *format, ...);
extern inline __attribute__ ((__gnu_inline__)) int
myprintf (FILE *f, const char *format, ...)
@{
  int r = fprintf (f, "myprintf: ");
  if (r < 0)
    return r;
  int s = fprintf (f, format, __builtin_va_arg_pack ());
  if (s < 0)
    return s;
  return r + s;
@}
@end smallexample
@end deftypefn

@deftypefn {Built-in Function} __builtin_va_arg_pack_len ()
This built-in function returns the number of anonymous arguments of
an inline function.  It can be used only in inline functions which
will be always inlined, never compiled as a separate function, such
as those using @code{__attribute__ ((__always_inline__))} or
@code{__attribute__ ((__gnu_inline__))} extern inline functions.
For example following will do link or runtime checking of open
arguments for optimized code:
@smallexample
#ifdef __OPTIMIZE__
extern inline __attribute__((__gnu_inline__)) int
myopen (const char *path, int oflag, ...)
@{
  if (__builtin_va_arg_pack_len () > 1)
    warn_open_too_many_arguments ();

  if (__builtin_constant_p (oflag))
    @{
      if ((oflag & O_CREAT) != 0 && __builtin_va_arg_pack_len () < 1)
        @{
          warn_open_missing_mode ();
          return __open_2 (path, oflag);
        @}
      return open (path, oflag, __builtin_va_arg_pack ());
    @}
    
  if (__builtin_va_arg_pack_len () < 1)
    return __open_2 (path, oflag);

  return open (path, oflag, __builtin_va_arg_pack ());
@}
#endif
@end smallexample
@end deftypefn

@node Typeof
@section Referring to a Type with @code{typeof}
@findex typeof
@findex sizeof
@cindex macros, types of arguments

Another way to refer to the type of an expression is with @code{typeof}.
The syntax of using of this keyword looks like @code{sizeof}, but the
construct acts semantically like a type name defined with @code{typedef}.

There are two ways of writing the argument to @code{typeof}: with an
expression or with a type.  Here is an example with an expression:

@smallexample
typeof (x[0](1))
@end smallexample

@noindent
This assumes that @code{x} is an array of pointers to functions;
the type described is that of the values of the functions.

Here is an example with a typename as the argument:

@smallexample
typeof (int *)
@end smallexample

@noindent
Here the type described is that of pointers to @code{int}.

If you are writing a header file that must work when included in ISO C
programs, write @code{__typeof__} instead of @code{typeof}.
@xref{Alternate Keywords}.

A @code{typeof}-construct can be used anywhere a typedef name could be
used.  For example, you can use it in a declaration, in a cast, or inside
of @code{sizeof} or @code{typeof}.

The operand of @code{typeof} is evaluated for its side effects if and
only if it is an expression of variably modified type or the name of
such a type.

@code{typeof} is often useful in conjunction with the
statements-within-expressions feature.  Here is how the two together can
be used to define a safe ``maximum'' macro that operates on any
arithmetic type and evaluates each of its arguments exactly once:

@smallexample
#define max(a,b) \
  (@{ typeof (a) _a = (a); \
      typeof (b) _b = (b); \
    _a > _b ? _a : _b; @})
@end smallexample

@cindex underscores in variables in macros
@cindex @samp{_} in variables in macros
@cindex local variables in macros
@cindex variables, local, in macros
@cindex macros, local variables in

The reason for using names that start with underscores for the local
variables is to avoid conflicts with variable names that occur within the
expressions that are substituted for @code{a} and @code{b}.  Eventually we
hope to design a new form of declaration syntax that allows you to declare
variables whose scopes start only after their initializers; this will be a
more reliable way to prevent such conflicts.

@noindent
Some more examples of the use of @code{typeof}:

@itemize @bullet
@item
This declares @code{y} with the type of what @code{x} points to.

@smallexample
typeof (*x) y;
@end smallexample

@item
This declares @code{y} as an array of such values.

@smallexample
typeof (*x) y[4];
@end smallexample

@item
This declares @code{y} as an array of pointers to characters:

@smallexample
typeof (typeof (char *)[4]) y;
@end smallexample

@noindent
It is equivalent to the following traditional C declaration:

@smallexample
char *y[4];
@end smallexample

To see the meaning of the declaration using @code{typeof}, and why it
might be a useful way to write, rewrite it with these macros:

@smallexample
#define pointer(T)  typeof(T *)
#define array(T, N) typeof(T [N])
@end smallexample

@noindent
Now the declaration can be rewritten this way:

@smallexample
array (pointer (char), 4) y;
@end smallexample

@noindent
Thus, @code{array (pointer (char), 4)} is the type of arrays of 4
pointers to @code{char}.
@end itemize

@emph{Compatibility Note:} In addition to @code{typeof}, GCC 2 supported
a more limited extension which permitted one to write

@smallexample
typedef @var{T} = @var{expr};
@end smallexample

@noindent
with the effect of declaring @var{T} to have the type of the expression
@var{expr}.  This extension does not work with GCC 3 (versions between
3.0 and 3.2 will crash; 3.2.1 and later give an error).  Code which
relies on it should be rewritten to use @code{typeof}:

@smallexample
typedef typeof(@var{expr}) @var{T};
@end smallexample

@noindent
This will work with all versions of GCC@.

@node Conditionals
@section Conditionals with Omitted Operands
@cindex conditional expressions, extensions
@cindex omitted middle-operands
@cindex middle-operands, omitted
@cindex extensions, @code{?:}
@cindex @code{?:} extensions

The middle operand in a conditional expression may be omitted.  Then
if the first operand is nonzero, its value is the value of the conditional
expression.

Therefore, the expression

@smallexample
x ? : y
@end smallexample

@noindent
has the value of @code{x} if that is nonzero; otherwise, the value of
@code{y}.

This example is perfectly equivalent to

@smallexample
x ? x : y
@end smallexample

@cindex side effect in ?:
@cindex ?: side effect
@noindent
In this simple case, the ability to omit the middle operand is not
especially useful.  When it becomes useful is when the first operand does,
or may (if it is a macro argument), contain a side effect.  Then repeating
the operand in the middle would perform the side effect twice.  Omitting
the middle operand uses the value already computed without the undesirable
effects of recomputing it.

@node Long Long
@section Double-Word Integers
@cindex @code{long long} data types
@cindex double-word arithmetic
@cindex multiprecision arithmetic
@cindex @code{LL} integer suffix
@cindex @code{ULL} integer suffix

ISO C99 supports data types for integers that are at least 64 bits wide,
and as an extension GCC supports them in C89 mode and in C++.
Simply write @code{long long int} for a signed integer, or
@code{unsigned long long int} for an unsigned integer.  To make an
integer constant of type @code{long long int}, add the suffix @samp{LL}
to the integer.  To make an integer constant of type @code{unsigned long
long int}, add the suffix @samp{ULL} to the integer.

You can use these types in arithmetic like any other integer types.
Addition, subtraction, and bitwise boolean operations on these types
are open-coded on all types of machines.  Multiplication is open-coded
if the machine supports fullword-to-doubleword a widening multiply
instruction.  Division and shifts are open-coded only on machines that
provide special support.  The operations that are not open-coded use
special library routines that come with GCC@.

There may be pitfalls when you use @code{long long} types for function
arguments, unless you declare function prototypes.  If a function
expects type @code{int} for its argument, and you pass a value of type
@code{long long int}, confusion will result because the caller and the
subroutine will disagree about the number of bytes for the argument.
Likewise, if the function expects @code{long long int} and you pass
@code{int}.  The best way to avoid such problems is to use prototypes.

@node Complex
@section Complex Numbers
@cindex complex numbers
@cindex @code{_Complex} keyword
@cindex @code{__complex__} keyword

ISO C99 supports complex floating data types, and as an extension GCC
supports them in C89 mode and in C++, and supports complex integer data
types which are not part of ISO C99.  You can declare complex types
using the keyword @code{_Complex}.  As an extension, the older GNU
keyword @code{__complex__} is also supported.

For example, @samp{_Complex double x;} declares @code{x} as a
variable whose real part and imaginary part are both of type
@code{double}.  @samp{_Complex short int y;} declares @code{y} to
have real and imaginary parts of type @code{short int}; this is not
likely to be useful, but it shows that the set of complex types is
complete.

To write a constant with a complex data type, use the suffix @samp{i} or
@samp{j} (either one; they are equivalent).  For example, @code{2.5fi}
has type @code{_Complex float} and @code{3i} has type
@code{_Complex int}.  Such a constant always has a pure imaginary
value, but you can form any complex value you like by adding one to a
real constant.  This is a GNU extension; if you have an ISO C99
conforming C library (such as GNU libc), and want to construct complex
constants of floating type, you should include @code{<complex.h>} and
use the macros @code{I} or @code{_Complex_I} instead.

@cindex @code{__real__} keyword
@cindex @code{__imag__} keyword
To extract the real part of a complex-valued expression @var{exp}, write
@code{__real__ @var{exp}}.  Likewise, use @code{__imag__} to
extract the imaginary part.  This is a GNU extension; for values of
floating type, you should use the ISO C99 functions @code{crealf},
@code{creal}, @code{creall}, @code{cimagf}, @code{cimag} and
@code{cimagl}, declared in @code{<complex.h>} and also provided as
built-in functions by GCC@.

@cindex complex conjugation
The operator @samp{~} performs complex conjugation when used on a value
with a complex type.  This is a GNU extension; for values of
floating type, you should use the ISO C99 functions @code{conjf},
@code{conj} and @code{conjl}, declared in @code{<complex.h>} and also
provided as built-in functions by GCC@.

GCC can allocate complex automatic variables in a noncontiguous
fashion; it's even possible for the real part to be in a register while
the imaginary part is on the stack (or vice-versa).  Only the DWARF2
debug info format can represent this, so use of DWARF2 is recommended.
If you are using the stabs debug info format, GCC describes a noncontiguous
complex variable as if it were two separate variables of noncomplex type.
If the variable's actual name is @code{foo}, the two fictitious
variables are named @code{foo$real} and @code{foo$imag}.  You can
examine and set these two fictitious variables with your debugger.

@node Floating Types
@section Additional Floating Types
@cindex additional floating types
@cindex @code{__float80} data type
@cindex @code{__float128} data type
@cindex @code{w} floating point suffix
@cindex @code{q} floating point suffix
@cindex @code{W} floating point suffix
@cindex @code{Q} floating point suffix

As an extension, the GNU C compiler supports additional floating
types, @code{__float80} and @code{__float128} to support 80bit
(@code{XFmode}) and 128 bit (@code{TFmode}) floating types.
Support for additional types includes the arithmetic operators:
add, subtract, multiply, divide; unary arithmetic operators;
relational operators; equality operators; and conversions to and from
integer and other floating types.  Use a suffix @samp{w} or @samp{W}
in a literal constant of type @code{__float80} and @samp{q} or @samp{Q}
for @code{_float128}.  You can declare complex types using the
corresponding internal complex type, @code{XCmode} for @code{__float80}
type and @code{TCmode} for @code{__float128} type:

@smallexample
typedef _Complex float __attribute__((mode(TC))) _Complex128;
typedef _Complex float __attribute__((mode(XC))) _Complex80;
@end smallexample

Not all targets support additional floating point types.  @code{__float80}
and @code{__float128} types are supported on i386, x86_64 and ia64 targets.

@node Half-Precision
@section Half-Precision Floating Point
@cindex half-precision floating point
@cindex @code{__fp16} data type

On ARM targets, GCC supports half-precision (16-bit) floating point via
the @code{__fp16} type.  You must enable this type explicitly 
with the @option{-mfp16-format} command-line option in order to use it.

ARM supports two incompatible representations for half-precision
floating-point values.  You must choose one of the representations and
use it consistently in your program.

Specifying @option{-mfp16-format=ieee} selects the IEEE 754-2008 format.
This format can represent normalized values in the range of @math{2^{-14}} to 65504.
There are 11 bits of significand precision, approximately 3
decimal digits.

Specifying @option{-mfp16-format=alternative} selects the ARM
alternative format.  This representation is similar to the IEEE
format, but does not support infinities or NaNs.  Instead, the range
of exponents is extended, so that this format can represent normalized
values in the range of @math{2^{-14}} to 131008.

The @code{__fp16} type is a storage format only.  For purposes
of arithmetic and other operations, @code{__fp16} values in C or C++
expressions are automatically promoted to @code{float}.  In addition,
you cannot declare a function with a return value or parameters 
of type @code{__fp16}.

Note that conversions from @code{double} to @code{__fp16}
involve an intermediate conversion to @code{float}.  Because
of rounding, this can sometimes produce a different result than a
direct conversion.

ARM provides hardware support for conversions between 
@code{__fp16} and @code{float} values
as an extension to VFP and NEON (Advanced SIMD).  GCC generates
code using the instructions provided by this extension if you compile
with the options @option{-mfpu=neon-fp16 -mfloat-abi=softfp},
in addition to the @option{-mfp16-format} option to select
a half-precision format.  

Language-level support for the @code{__fp16} data type is
independent of whether GCC generates code using hardware floating-point
instructions.  In cases where hardware support is not specified, GCC
implements conversions between @code{__fp16} and @code{float} values
as library calls.

@node Decimal Float
@section Decimal Floating Types
@cindex decimal floating types
@cindex @code{_Decimal32} data type
@cindex @code{_Decimal64} data type
@cindex @code{_Decimal128} data type
@cindex @code{df} integer suffix
@cindex @code{dd} integer suffix
@cindex @code{dl} integer suffix
@cindex @code{DF} integer suffix
@cindex @code{DD} integer suffix
@cindex @code{DL} integer suffix

As an extension, the GNU C compiler supports decimal floating types as
defined in the N1312 draft of ISO/IEC WDTR24732.  Support for decimal
floating types in GCC will evolve as the draft technical report changes.
Calling conventions for any target might also change.  Not all targets
support decimal floating types.

The decimal floating types are @code{_Decimal32}, @code{_Decimal64}, and
@code{_Decimal128}.  They use a radix of ten, unlike the floating types
@code{float}, @code{double}, and @code{long double} whose radix is not
specified by the C standard but is usually two.

Support for decimal floating types includes the arithmetic operators
add, subtract, multiply, divide; unary arithmetic operators;
relational operators; equality operators; and conversions to and from
integer and other floating types.  Use a suffix @samp{df} or
@samp{DF} in a literal constant of type @code{_Decimal32}, @samp{dd}
or @samp{DD} for @code{_Decimal64}, and @samp{dl} or @samp{DL} for
@code{_Decimal128}.

GCC support of decimal float as specified by the draft technical report
is incomplete:

@itemize @bullet
@item
When the value of a decimal floating type cannot be represented in the
integer type to which it is being converted, the result is undefined
rather than the result value specified by the draft technical report.

@item
GCC does not provide the C library functionality associated with
@file{math.h}, @file{fenv.h}, @file{stdio.h}, @file{stdlib.h}, and
@file{wchar.h}, which must come from a separate C library implementation.
Because of this the GNU C compiler does not define macro
@code{__STDC_DEC_FP__} to indicate that the implementation conforms to
the technical report.
@end itemize

Types @code{_Decimal32}, @code{_Decimal64}, and @code{_Decimal128}
are supported by the DWARF2 debug information format.

@node Hex Floats
@section Hex Floats
@cindex hex floats

ISO C99 supports floating-point numbers written not only in the usual
decimal notation, such as @code{1.55e1}, but also numbers such as
@code{0x1.fp3} written in hexadecimal format.  As a GNU extension, GCC
supports this in C89 mode (except in some cases when strictly
conforming) and in C++.  In that format the
@samp{0x} hex introducer and the @samp{p} or @samp{P} exponent field are
mandatory.  The exponent is a decimal number that indicates the power of
2 by which the significant part will be multiplied.  Thus @samp{0x1.f} is
@tex
$1 {15\over16}$,
@end tex
@ifnottex
1 15/16,
@end ifnottex
@samp{p3} multiplies it by 8, and the value of @code{0x1.fp3}
is the same as @code{1.55e1}.

Unlike for floating-point numbers in the decimal notation the exponent
is always required in the hexadecimal notation.  Otherwise the compiler
would not be able to resolve the ambiguity of, e.g., @code{0x1.f}.  This
could mean @code{1.0f} or @code{1.9375} since @samp{f} is also the
extension for floating-point constants of type @code{float}.

@node Fixed-Point
@section Fixed-Point Types
@cindex fixed-point types
@cindex @code{_Fract} data type
@cindex @code{_Accum} data type
@cindex @code{_Sat} data type
@cindex @code{hr} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{r} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{lr} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{llr} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{uhr} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ur} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ulr} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ullr} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{hk} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{k} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{lk} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{llk} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{uhk} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{uk} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ulk} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ullk} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{HR} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{R} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{LR} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{LLR} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{UHR} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{UR} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ULR} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ULLR} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{HK} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{K} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{LK} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{LLK} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{UHK} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{UK} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ULK} fixed-suffix
@cindex @code{ULLK} fixed-suffix

As an extension, the GNU C compiler supports fixed-point types as
defined in the N1169 draft of ISO/IEC DTR 18037.  Support for fixed-point
types in GCC will evolve as the draft technical report changes.
Calling conventions for any target might also change.  Not all targets
support fixed-point types.

The fixed-point types are
@code{short _Fract},
@code{_Fract},
@code{long _Fract},
@code{long long _Fract},
@code{unsigned short _Fract},
@code{unsigned _Fract},
@code{unsigned long _Fract},
@code{unsigned long long _Fract},
@code{_Sat short _Fract},
@code{_Sat _Fract},
@code{_Sat long _Fract},
@code{_Sat long long _Fract},
@code{_Sat unsigned short _Fract},
@code{_Sat unsigned _Fract},
@code{_Sat unsigned long _Fract},
@code{_Sat unsigned long long _Fract},
@code{short _Accum},
@code{_Accum},
@code{long _Accum},
@code{long long _Accum},
@code{unsigned short _Accum},
@code{unsigned _Accum},
@code{unsigned long _Accum},
@code{unsigned long long _Accum},
@code{_Sat short _Accum},
@code{_Sat _Accum},
@code{_Sat long _Accum},
@code{_Sat long long _Accum},
@code{_Sat unsigned short _Accum},
@code{_Sat unsigned _Accum},
@code{_Sat unsigned long _Accum},
@code{_Sat unsigned long long _Accum}.

Fixed-point data values contain fractional and optional integral parts.
The format of fixed-point data varies and depends on the target machine.

Support for fixed-point types includes:
@itemize @bullet
@item
prefix and postfix increment and decrement operators (@code{++}, @code{--})
@item
unary arithmetic operators (@code{+}, @code{-}, @code{!})
@item
binary arithmetic operators (@code{+}, @code{-}, @code{*}, @code{/})
@item
binary shift operators (@code{<<}, @code{>>})
@item
relational operators (@code{<}, @code{<=}, @code{>=}, @code{>})
@item
equality operators (@code{==}, @code{!=})
@item
assignment operators (@code{+=}, @code{-=}, @code{*=}, @code{/=},
@code{<<=}, @code{>>=})
@item
conversions to and from integer, floating-point, or fixed-point types
@end itemize

Use a suffix in a fixed-point literal constant:
@itemize
@item @samp{hr} or @samp{HR} for @code{short _Fract} and
@code{_Sat short _Fract}
@item @samp{r} or @samp{R} for @code{_Fract} and @code{_Sat _Fract}
@item @samp{lr} or @samp{LR} for @code{long _Fract} and
@code{_Sat long _Fract}
@item @samp{llr} or @samp{LLR} for @code{long long _Fract} and
@code{_Sat long long _Fract}
@item @samp{uhr} or @samp{UHR} for @code{unsigned short _Fract} and
@code{_Sat unsigned short _Fract}
@item @samp{ur} or @samp{UR} for @code{unsigned _Fract} and
@code{_Sat unsigned _Fract}
@item @samp{ulr} or @samp{ULR} for @code{unsigned long _Fract} and
@code{_Sat unsigned long _Fract}
@item @samp{ullr} or @samp{ULLR} for @code{unsigned long long _Fract}
and @code{_Sat unsigned long long _Fract}
@item @samp{hk} or @samp{HK} for @code{short _Accum} and
@code{_Sat short _Accum}
@item @samp{k} or @samp{K} for @code{_Accum} and @code{_Sat _Accum}
@item @samp{lk} or @samp{LK} for @code{long _Accum} and
@code{_Sat long _Accum}
@item @samp{llk} or @samp{LLK} for @code{long long _Accum} and
@code{_Sat long long _Accum}
@item @samp{uhk} or @samp{UHK} for @code{unsigned short _Accum} and
@code{_Sat unsigned short _Accum}
@item @samp{uk} or @samp{UK} for @code{unsigned _Accum} and
@code{_Sat unsigned _Accum}
@item @samp{ulk} or @samp{ULK} for @code{unsigned long _Accum} and
@code{_Sat unsigned long _Accum}
@item @samp{ullk} or @samp{ULLK} for @code{unsigned long long _Accum}
and @code{_Sat unsigned long long _Accum}
@end itemize

GCC support of fixed-point types as specified by the draft technical report
is incomplete:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Pragmas to control overflow and rounding behaviors are not implemented.
@end itemize

Fixed-point types are supported by the DWARF2 debug information format.

@node Zero Length
@section Arrays of Length Zero
@cindex arrays of length zero
@cindex zero-length arrays
@cindex length-zero arrays
@cindex flexible array members

Zero-length arrays are allowed in GNU C@.  They are very useful as the
last element of a structure which is really a header for a variable-length
object:

@smallexample
struct line @{
  int length;
  char contents[0];
@};

struct line *thisline = (struct line *)
  malloc (sizeof (struct line) + this_length);
thisline->length = this_length;
@end smallexample

In ISO C90, you would have to give @code{contents} a length of 1, which
means either you waste space or complicate the argument to @code{malloc}.

In ISO C99, you would use a @dfn{flexible array member}, which is
slightly different in syntax and semantics:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Flexible array members are written as @code{contents[]} without
the @code{0}.

@item
Flexible array members have incomplete type, and so the @code{sizeof}
operator may not be applied.  As a quirk of the original implementation
of zero-length arrays, @code{sizeof} evaluates to zero.

@item
Flexible array members may only appear as the last member of a
@code{struct} that is otherwise non-empty.

@item
A structure containing a flexible array member, or a union containing
such a structure (possibly recursively), may not be a member of a
structure or an element of an array.  (However, these uses are
permitted by GCC as extensions.)
@end itemize

GCC versions before 3.0 allowed zero-length arrays to be statically
initialized, as if they were flexible arrays.  In addition to those
cases that were useful, it also allowed initializations in situations
that would corrupt later data.  Non-empty initialization of zero-length
arrays is now treated like any case where there are more initializer
elements than the array holds, in that a suitable warning about "excess
elements in array" is given, and the excess elements (all of them, in
this case) are ignored.

Instead GCC allows static initialization of flexible array members.
This is equivalent to defining a new structure containing the original
structure followed by an array of sufficient size to contain the data.
I.e.@: in the following, @code{f1} is constructed as if it were declared
like @code{f2}.

@smallexample
struct f1 @{
  int x; int y[];
@} f1 = @{ 1, @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @};

struct f2 @{
  struct f1 f1; int data[3];
@} f2 = @{ @{ 1 @}, @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
The convenience of this extension is that @code{f1} has the desired
type, eliminating the need to consistently refer to @code{f2.f1}.

This has symmetry with normal static arrays, in that an array of
unknown size is also written with @code{[]}.

Of course, this extension only makes sense if the extra data comes at
the end of a top-level object, as otherwise we would be overwriting
data at subsequent offsets.  To avoid undue complication and confusion
with initialization of deeply nested arrays, we simply disallow any
non-empty initialization except when the structure is the top-level
object.  For example:

@smallexample
struct foo @{ int x; int y[]; @};
struct bar @{ struct foo z; @};

struct foo a = @{ 1, @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @};        // @r{Valid.}
struct bar b = @{ @{ 1, @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @} @};    // @r{Invalid.}
struct bar c = @{ @{ 1, @{ @} @} @};            // @r{Valid.}
struct foo d[1] = @{ @{ 1 @{ 2, 3, 4 @} @} @};  // @r{Invalid.}
@end smallexample

@node Empty Structures
@section Structures With No Members
@cindex empty structures
@cindex zero-size structures

GCC permits a C structure to have no members:

@smallexample
struct empty @{
@};
@end smallexample

The structure will have size zero.  In C++, empty structures are part
of the language.  G++ treats empty structures as if they had a single
member of type @code{char}.

@node Variable Length
@section Arrays of Variable Length
@cindex variable-length arrays
@cindex arrays of variable length
@cindex VLAs

Variable-length automatic arrays are allowed in ISO C99, and as an
extension GCC accepts them in C89 mode and in C++.  (However, GCC's
implementation of variable-length arrays does not yet conform in detail
to the ISO C99 standard.)  These arrays are
declared like any other automatic arrays, but with a length that is not
a constant expression.  The storage is allocated at the point of
declaration and deallocated when the brace-level is exited.  For
example:

@smallexample
FILE *
concat_fopen (char *s1, char *s2, char *mode)
@{
  char str[strlen (s1) + strlen (s2) + 1];
  strcpy (str, s1);
  strcat (str, s2);
  return fopen (str, mode);
@}
@end smallexample

@cindex scope of a variable length array
@cindex variable-length array scope
@cindex deallocating variable length arrays
Jumping or breaking out of the scope of the array name deallocates the
storage.  Jumping into the scope is not allowed; you get an error
message for it.

@cindex @code{alloca} vs variable-length arrays
You can use the function @code{alloca} to get an effect much like
variable-length arrays.  The function @code{alloca} is available in
many other C implementations (but not in all).  On the other hand,
variable-length arrays are more elegant.

There are other differences between these two methods.  Space allocated
with @code{alloca} exists until the containing @emph{function} returns.
The space for a variable-length array is deallocated as soon as the array
name's scope ends.  (If you use both variable-length arrays and
@code{alloca} in the same function, deallocation of a variable-length array
will also deallocate anything more recently allocated with @code{alloca}.)

You can also use variable-length arrays as arguments to functions:

@smallexample
struct entry
tester (int len, char data[len][len])
@{
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
@}
@end smallexample

The length of an array is computed once when the storage is allocated
and is remembered for the scope of the array in case you access it with
@code{sizeof}.

If you want to pass the array first and the length afterward, you can
use a forward declaration in the parameter list---another GNU extension.

@smallexample
struct entry
tester (int len; char data[len][len], int len)
@{
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
@}
@end smallexample

@cindex parameter forward declaration
The @samp{int len} before the semicolon is a @dfn{parameter forward
declaration}, and it serves the purpose of making the name @code{len}
known when the declaration of @code{data} is parsed.

You can write any number of such parameter forward declarations in the
parameter list.  They can be separated by commas or semicolons, but the
last one must end with a semicolon, which is followed by the ``real''
parameter declarations.  Each forward declaration must match a ``real''
declaration in parameter name and data type.  ISO C99 does not support
parameter forward declarations.

@node Variadic Macros
@section Macros with a Variable Number of Arguments.
@cindex variable number of arguments
@cindex macro with variable arguments
@cindex rest argument (in macro)
@cindex variadic macros

In the ISO C standard of 1999, a macro can be declared to accept a
variable number of arguments much as a function can.  The syntax for
defining the macro is similar to that of a function.  Here is an
example:

@smallexample
#define debug(format, ...) fprintf (stderr, format, __VA_ARGS__)
@end smallexample

Here @samp{@dots{}} is a @dfn{variable argument}.  In the invocation of
such a macro, it represents the zero or more tokens until the closing
parenthesis that ends the invocation, including any commas.  This set of
tokens replaces the identifier @code{__VA_ARGS__} in the macro body
wherever it appears.  See the CPP manual for more information.

GCC has long supported variadic macros, and used a different syntax that
allowed you to give a name to the variable arguments just like any other
argument.  Here is an example:

@smallexample
#define debug(format, args...) fprintf (stderr, format, args)
@end smallexample

This is in all ways equivalent to the ISO C example above, but arguably
more readable and descriptive.

GNU CPP has two further variadic macro extensions, and permits them to
be used with either of the above forms of macro definition.

In standard C, you are not allowed to leave the variable argument out
entirely; but you are allowed to pass an empty argument.  For example,
this invocation is invalid in ISO C, because there is no comma after
the string:

@smallexample
debug ("A message")
@end smallexample

GNU CPP permits you to completely omit the variable arguments in this
way.  In the above examples, the compiler would complain, though since
the expansion of the macro still has the extra comma after the format
string.

To help solve this problem, CPP behaves specially for variable arguments
used with the token paste operator, @samp{##}.  If instead you write

@smallexample
#define debug(format, ...) fprintf (stderr, format, ## __VA_ARGS__)
@end smallexample

and if the variable arguments are omitted or empty, the @samp{##}
operator causes the preprocessor to remove the comma before it.  If you
do provide some variable arguments in your macro invocation, GNU CPP
does not complain about the paste operation and instead places the
variable arguments after the comma.  Just like any other pasted macro
argument, these arguments are not macro expanded.

@node Escaped Newlines
@section Slightly Looser Rules for Escaped Newlines
@cindex escaped newlines
@cindex newlines (escaped)

Recently, the preprocessor has relaxed its treatment of escaped
newlines.  Previously, the newline had to immediately follow a
backslash.  The current implementation allows whitespace in the form
of spaces, horizontal and vertical tabs, and form feeds between the
backslash and the subsequent newline.  The preprocessor issues a
warning, but treats it as a valid escaped newline and combines the two
lines to form a single logical line.  This works within comments and
tokens, as well as between tokens.  Comments are @emph{not} treated as
whitespace for the purposes of this relaxation, since they have not
yet been replaced with spaces.

@node Subscripting
@section Non-Lvalue Arrays May Have Subscripts
@cindex subscripting
@cindex arrays, non-lvalue

@cindex subscripting and function values
In ISO C99, arrays that are not lvalues still decay to pointers, and
may be subscripted, although they may not be modified or used after
the next sequence point and the unary @samp{&} operator may not be
applied to them.  As an extension, GCC allows such arrays to be
subscripted in C89 mode, though otherwise they do not decay to
pointers outside C99 mode.  For example,
this is valid in GNU C though not valid in C89:

@smallexample
@group
struct foo @{int a[4];@};

struct foo f();

bar (int index)
@{
  return f().a[index];
@}
@end group
@end smallexample

@node Pointer Arith
@section Arithmetic on @code{void}- and Function-Pointers
@cindex void pointers, arithmetic
@cindex void, size of pointer to
@cindex function pointers, arithmetic
@cindex function, size of pointer to

In GNU C, addition and subtraction operations are supported on pointers to
@code{void} and on pointers to functions.  This is done by treating the
size of a @code{void} or of a function as 1.

A consequence of this is that @code{sizeof} is also allowed on @code{void}
and on function types, and returns 1.

@opindex Wpointer-arith
The option @option{-Wpointer-arith} requests a warning if these extensions
are used.

@node Initializers
@section Non-Constant Initializers
@cindex initializers, non-constant
@cindex non-constant initializers

As in standard C++ and ISO C99, the elements of an aggregate initializer for an
automatic variable are not required to be constant expressions in GNU C@.
Here is an example of an initializer with run-time varying elements:

@smallexample
foo (float f, float g)
@{
  float beat_freqs[2] = @{ f-g, f+g @};
  /* @r{@dots{}} */
@}
@end smallexample

@node Compound Literals
@section Compound Literals
@cindex constructor expressions
@cindex initializations in expressions
@cindex structures, constructor expression
@cindex expressions, constructor
@cindex compound literals
@c The GNU C name for what C99 calls compound literals was "constructor expressions".

ISO C99 supports compound literals.  A compound literal looks like
a cast containing an initializer.  Its value is an object of the
type specified in the cast, containing the elements specified in
the initializer; it is an lvalue.  As an extension, GCC supports
compound literals in C89 mode and in C++.

Usually, the specified type is a structure.  Assume that
@code{struct foo} and @code{structure} are declared as shown:

@smallexample
struct foo @{int a; char b[2];@} structure;
@end smallexample

@noindent
Here is an example of constructing a @code{struct foo} with a compound literal:

@smallexample
structure = ((struct foo) @{x + y, 'a', 0@});
@end smallexample

@noindent
This is equivalent to writing the following:

@smallexample
@{
  struct foo temp = @{x + y, 'a', 0@};
  structure = temp;
@}
@end smallexample

You can also construct an array.  If all the elements of the compound literal
are (made up of) simple constant expressions, suitable for use in
initializers of objects of static storage duration, then the compound
literal can be coerced to a pointer to its first element and used in
such an initializer, as shown here:

@smallexample
char **foo = (char *[]) @{ "x", "y", "z" @};
@end smallexample

Compound literals for scalar types and union types are is
also allowed, but then the compound literal is equivalent
to a cast.

As a GNU extension, GCC allows initialization of objects with static storage
duration by compound literals (which is not possible in ISO C99, because
the initializer is not a constant).
It is handled as if the object was initialized only with the bracket
enclosed list if the types of the compound literal and the object match.
The initializer list of the compound literal must be constant.
If the object being initialized has array type of unknown size, the size is
determined by compound literal size.

@smallexample
static struct foo x = (struct foo) @{1, 'a', 'b'@};
static int y[] = (int []) @{1, 2, 3@};
static int z[] = (int [3]) @{1@};
@end smallexample

@noindent
The above lines are equivalent to the following:
@smallexample
static struct foo x = @{1, 'a', 'b'@};
static int y[] = @{1, 2, 3@};
static int z[] = @{1, 0, 0@};
@end smallexample

@node Designated Inits
@section Designated Initializers
@cindex initializers with labeled elements
@cindex labeled elements in initializers
@cindex case labels in initializers
@cindex designated initializers

Standard C89 requires the elements of an initializer to appear in a fixed
order, the same as the order of the elements in the array or structure
being initialized.

In ISO C99 you can give the elements in any order, specifying the array
indices or structure field names they apply to, and GNU C allows this as
an extension in C89 mode as well.  This extension is not
implemented in GNU C++.

To specify an array index, write
@samp{[@var{index}] =} before the element value.  For example,

@smallexample
int a[6] = @{ [4] = 29, [2] = 15 @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
is equivalent to

@smallexample
int a[6] = @{ 0, 0, 15, 0, 29, 0 @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
The index values must be constant expressions, even if the array being
initialized is automatic.

An alternative syntax for this which has been obsolete since GCC 2.5 but
GCC still accepts is to write @samp{[@var{index}]} before the element
value, with no @samp{=}.

To initialize a range of elements to the same value, write
@samp{[@var{first} ... @var{last}] = @var{value}}.  This is a GNU
extension.  For example,

@smallexample
int widths[] = @{ [0 ... 9] = 1, [10 ... 99] = 2, [100] = 3 @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
If the value in it has side-effects, the side-effects will happen only once,
not for each initialized field by the range initializer.

@noindent
Note that the length of the array is the highest value specified
plus one.

In a structure initializer, specify the name of a field to initialize
with @samp{.@var{fieldname} =} before the element value.  For example,
given the following structure,

@smallexample
struct point @{ int x, y; @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
the following initialization

@smallexample
struct point p = @{ .y = yvalue, .x = xvalue @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
is equivalent to

@smallexample
struct point p = @{ xvalue, yvalue @};
@end smallexample

Another syntax which has the same meaning, obsolete since GCC 2.5, is
@samp{@var{fieldname}:}, as shown here:

@smallexample
struct point p = @{ y: yvalue, x: xvalue @};
@end smallexample

@cindex designators
The @samp{[@var{index}]} or @samp{.@var{fieldname}} is known as a
@dfn{designator}.  You can also use a designator (or the obsolete colon
syntax) when initializing a union, to specify which element of the union
should be used.  For example,

@smallexample
union foo @{ int i; double d; @};

union foo f = @{ .d = 4 @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
will convert 4 to a @code{double} to store it in the union using
the second element.  By contrast, casting 4 to type @code{union foo}
would store it into the union as the integer @code{i}, since it is
an integer.  (@xref{Cast to Union}.)

You can combine this technique of naming elements with ordinary C
initialization of successive elements.  Each initializer element that
does not have a designator applies to the next consecutive element of the
array or structure.  For example,

@smallexample
int a[6] = @{ [1] = v1, v2, [4] = v4 @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
is equivalent to

@smallexample
int a[6] = @{ 0, v1, v2, 0, v4, 0 @};
@end smallexample

Labeling the elements of an array initializer is especially useful
when the indices are characters or belong to an @code{enum} type.
For example:

@smallexample
int whitespace[256]
  = @{ [' '] = 1, ['\t'] = 1, ['\h'] = 1,
      ['\f'] = 1, ['\n'] = 1, ['\r'] = 1 @};
@end smallexample

@cindex designator lists
You can also write a series of @samp{.@var{fieldname}} and
@samp{[@var{index}]} designators before an @samp{=} to specify a
nested subobject to initialize; the list is taken relative to the
subobject corresponding to the closest surrounding brace pair.  For
example, with the @samp{struct point} declaration above:

@smallexample
struct point ptarray[10] = @{ [2].y = yv2, [2].x = xv2, [0].x = xv0 @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
If the same field is initialized multiple times, it will have value from
the last initialization.  If any such overridden initialization has
side-effect, it is unspecified whether the side-effect happens or not.
Currently, GCC will discard them and issue a warning.

@node Case Ranges
@section Case Ranges
@cindex case ranges
@cindex ranges in case statements

You can specify a range of consecutive values in a single @code{case} label,
like this:

@smallexample
case @var{low} ... @var{high}:
@end smallexample

@noindent
This has the same effect as the proper number of individual @code{case}
labels, one for each integer value from @var{low} to @var{high}, inclusive.

This feature is especially useful for ranges of ASCII character codes:

@smallexample
case 'A' ... 'Z':
@end smallexample

@strong{Be careful:} Write spaces around the @code{...}, for otherwise
it may be parsed wrong when you use it with integer values.  For example,
write this:

@smallexample
case 1 ... 5:
@end smallexample

@noindent
rather than this:

@smallexample
case 1...5:
@end smallexample

@node Cast to Union
@section Cast to a Union Type
@cindex cast to a union
@cindex union, casting to a

A cast to union type is similar to other casts, except that the type
specified is a union type.  You can specify the type either with
@code{union @var{tag}} or with a typedef name.  A cast to union is actually
a constructor though, not a cast, and hence does not yield an lvalue like
normal casts.  (@xref{Compound Literals}.)

The types that may be cast to the union type are those of the members
of the union.  Thus, given the following union and variables:

@smallexample
union foo @{ int i; double d; @};
int x;
double y;
@end smallexample

@noindent
both @code{x} and @code{y} can be cast to type @code{union foo}.

Using the cast as the right-hand side of an assignment to a variable of
union type is equivalent to storing in a member of the union:

@smallexample
union foo u;
/* @r{@dots{}} */
u = (union foo) x  @equiv{}  u.i = x
u = (union foo) y  @equiv{}  u.d = y
@end smallexample

You can also use the union cast as a function argument:

@smallexample
void hack (union foo);
/* @r{@dots{}} */
hack ((union foo) x);
@end smallexample

@node Mixed Declarations
@section Mixed Declarations and Code
@cindex mixed declarations and code
@cindex declarations, mixed with code
@cindex code, mixed with declarations

ISO C99 and ISO C++ allow declarations and code to be freely mixed
within compound statements.  As an extension, GCC also allows this in
C89 mode.  For example, you could do:

@smallexample
int i;
/* @r{@dots{}} */
i++;
int j = i + 2;
@end smallexample

Each identifier is visible from where it is declared until the end of
the enclosing block.

@node Function Attributes
@section Declaring Attributes of Functions
@cindex function attributes
@cindex declaring attributes of functions
@cindex functions that never return
@cindex functions that return more than once
@cindex functions that have no side effects
@cindex functions in arbitrary sections
@cindex functions that behave like malloc
@cindex @code{volatile} applied to function
@cindex @code{const} applied to function
@cindex functions with @code{printf}, @code{scanf}, @code{strftime} or @code{strfmon} style arguments
@cindex functions with non-null pointer arguments
@cindex functions that are passed arguments in registers on the 386
@cindex functions that pop the argument stack on the 386
@cindex functions that do not pop the argument stack on the 386
@cindex functions that have different compilation options on the 386
@cindex functions that have different optimization options

In GNU C, you declare certain things about functions called in your program
which help the compiler optimize function calls and check your code more
carefully.

The keyword @code{__attribute__} allows you to specify special
attributes when making a declaration.  This keyword is followed by an
attribute specification inside double parentheses.  The following
attributes are currently defined for functions on all targets:
@code{aligned}, @code{alloc_size}, @code{noreturn},
@code{returns_twice}, @code{noinline}, @code{noclone},
@code{always_inline}, @code{flatten}, @code{pure}, @code{const},
@code{nothrow}, @code{sentinel}, @code{format}, @code{format_arg},
@code{no_instrument_function}, @code{section}, @code{constructor},
@code{destructor}, @code{used}, @code{unused}, @code{deprecated},
@code{weak}, @code{malloc}, @code{alias}, @code{warn_unused_result},
@code{nonnull}, @code{gnu_inline}, @code{externally_visible},
@code{hot}, @code{cold}, @code{artificial}, @code{error} and
@code{warning}.  Several other attributes are defined for functions on
particular target systems.  Other attributes, including @code{section}
are supported for variables declarations (@pxref{Variable Attributes})
and for types (@pxref{Type Attributes}).

You may also specify attributes with @samp{__} preceding and following
each keyword.  This allows you to use them in header files without
being concerned about a possible macro of the same name.  For example,
you may use @code{__noreturn__} instead of @code{noreturn}.

@xref{Attribute Syntax}, for details of the exact syntax for using
attributes.

@table @code
@c Keep this table alphabetized by attribute name.  Treat _ as space.

@item alias ("@var{target}")
@cindex @code{alias} attribute
The @code{alias} attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as an
alias for another symbol, which must be specified.  For instance,

@smallexample
void __f () @{ /* @r{Do something.} */; @}
void f () __attribute__ ((weak, alias ("__f")));
@end smallexample

defines @samp{f} to be a weak alias for @samp{__f}.  In C++, the
mangled name for the target must be used.  It is an error if @samp{__f}
is not defined in the same translation unit.

Not all target machines support this attribute.

@item aligned (@var{alignment})
@cindex @code{aligned} attribute
This attribute specifies a minimum alignment for the function,
measured in bytes.

You cannot use this attribute to decrease the alignment of a function,
only to increase it.  However, when you explicitly specify a function
alignment this will override the effect of the
@option{-falign-functions} (@pxref{Optimize Options}) option for this
function.

Note that the effectiveness of @code{aligned} attributes may be
limited by inherent limitations in your linker.  On many systems, the
linker is only able to arrange for functions to be aligned up to a
certain maximum alignment.  (For some linkers, the maximum supported
alignment may be very very small.)  See your linker documentation for
further information.

The @code{aligned} attribute can also be used for variables and fields
(@pxref{Variable Attributes}.)

@item alloc_size
@cindex @code{alloc_size} attribute
The @code{alloc_size} attribute is used to tell the compiler that the
function return value points to memory, where the size is given by
one or two of the functions parameters.  GCC uses this 
information to improve the correctness of @code{__builtin_object_size}.

The function parameter(s) denoting the allocated size are specified by
one or two integer arguments supplied to the attribute.  The allocated size
is either the value of the single function argument specified or the product
of the two function arguments specified.  Argument numbering starts at
one.

For instance, 

@smallexample
void* my_calloc(size_t, size_t) __attribute__((alloc_size(1,2)))
void my_realloc(void*, size_t) __attribute__((alloc_size(2)))
@end smallexample

declares that my_calloc will return memory of the size given by
the product of parameter 1 and 2 and that my_realloc will return memory
of the size given by parameter 2.

@item always_inline
@cindex @code{always_inline} function attribute
Generally, functions are not inlined unless optimization is specified.
For functions declared inline, this attribute inlines the function even
if no optimization level was specified.

@item gnu_inline
@cindex @code{gnu_inline} function attribute
This attribute should be used with a function which is also declared
with the @code{inline} keyword.  It directs GCC to treat the function
as if it were defined in gnu89 mode even when compiling in C99 or
gnu99 mode.

If the function is declared @code{extern}, then this definition of the
function is used only for inlining.  In no case is the function
compiled as a standalone function, not even if you take its address
explicitly.  Such an address becomes an external reference, as if you
had only declared the function, and had not defined it.  This has
almost the effect of a macro.  The way to use this is to put a
function definition in a header file with this attribute, and put
another copy of the function, without @code{extern}, in a library
file.  The definition in the header file will cause most calls to the
function to be inlined.  If any uses of the function remain, they will
refer to the single copy in the library.  Note that the two
definitions of the functions need not be precisely the same, although
if they do not have the same effect your program may behave oddly.

In C, if the function is neither @code{extern} nor @code{static}, then
the function is compiled as a standalone function, as well as being
inlined where possible.

This is how GCC traditionally handled functions declared
@code{inline}.  Since ISO C99 specifies a different semantics for
@code{inline}, this function attribute is provided as a transition
measure and as a useful feature in its own right.  This attribute is
available in GCC 4.1.3 and later.  It is available if either of the
preprocessor macros @code{__GNUC_GNU_INLINE__} or
@code{__GNUC_STDC_INLINE__} are defined.  @xref{Inline,,An Inline
Function is As Fast As a Macro}.

In C++, this attribute does not depend on @code{extern} in any way,
but it still requires the @code{inline} keyword to enable its special
behavior.

@item artificial
@cindex @code{artificial} function attribute
This attribute is useful for small inline wrappers which if possible
should appear during debugging as a unit, depending on the debug
info format it will either mean marking the function as artificial
or using the caller location for all instructions within the inlined
body.

@item bank_switch
@cindex interrupt handler functions
When added to an interrupt handler with the M32C port, causes the
prologue and epilogue to use bank switching to preserve the registers
rather than saving them on the stack.

@item flatten
@cindex @code{flatten} function attribute
Generally, inlining into a function is limited.  For a function marked with
this attribute, every call inside this function will be inlined, if possible.
Whether the function itself is considered for inlining depends on its size and
the current inlining parameters.

@item error ("@var{message}")
@cindex @code{error} function attribute
If this attribute is used on a function declaration and a call to such a function
is not eliminated through dead code elimination or other optimizations, an error
which will include @var{message} will be diagnosed.  This is useful
for compile time checking, especially together with @code{__builtin_constant_p}
and inline functions where checking the inline function arguments is not
possible through @code{extern char [(condition) ? 1 : -1];} tricks.
While it is possible to leave the function undefined and thus invoke
a link failure, when using this attribute the problem will be diagnosed
earlier and with exact location of the call even in presence of inline
functions or when not emitting debugging information.

@item warning ("@var{message}")
@cindex @code{warning} function attribute
If this attribute is used on a function declaration and a call to such a function
is not eliminated through dead code elimination or other optimizations, a warning
which will include @var{message} will be diagnosed.  This is useful
for compile time checking, especially together with @code{__builtin_constant_p}
and inline functions.  While it is possible to define the function with
a message in @code{.gnu.warning*} section, when using this attribute the problem
will be diagnosed earlier and with exact location of the call even in presence
of inline functions or when not emitting debugging information.

@item cdecl
@cindex functions that do pop the argument stack on the 386
@opindex mrtd
On the Intel 386, the @code{cdecl} attribute causes the compiler to
assume that the calling function will pop off the stack space used to
pass arguments.  This is
useful to override the effects of the @option{-mrtd} switch.

@item const
@cindex @code{const} function attribute
Many functions do not examine any values except their arguments, and
have no effects except the return value.  Basically this is just slightly
more strict class than the @code{pure} attribute below, since function is not
allowed to read global memory.

@cindex pointer arguments
Note that a function that has pointer arguments and examines the data
pointed to must @emph{not} be declared @code{const}.  Likewise, a
function that calls a non-@code{const} function usually must not be
@code{const}.  It does not make sense for a @code{const} function to
return @code{void}.

The attribute @code{const} is not implemented in GCC versions earlier
than 2.5.  An alternative way to declare that a function has no side
effects, which works in the current version and in some older versions,
is as follows:

@smallexample
typedef int intfn ();

extern const intfn square;
@end smallexample

This approach does not work in GNU C++ from 2.6.0 on, since the language
specifies that the @samp{const} must be attached to the return value.

@item constructor
@itemx destructor
@itemx constructor (@var{priority})
@itemx destructor (@var{priority})
@cindex @code{constructor} function attribute
@cindex @code{destructor} function attribute
The @code{constructor} attribute causes the function to be called
automatically before execution enters @code{main ()}.  Similarly, the
@code{destructor} attribute causes the function to be called
automatically after @code{main ()} has completed or @code{exit ()} has
been called.  Functions with these attributes are useful for
initializing data that will be used implicitly during the execution of
the program.

You may provide an optional integer priority to control the order in
which constructor and destructor functions are run.  A constructor
with a smaller priority number runs before a constructor with a larger
priority number; the opposite relationship holds for destructors.  So,
if you have a constructor that allocates a resource and a destructor
that deallocates the same resource, both functions typically have the
same priority.  The priorities for constructor and destructor
functions are the same as those specified for namespace-scope C++
objects (@pxref{C++ Attributes}).

These attributes are not currently implemented for Objective-C@.

@item deprecated
@itemx deprecated (@var{msg})
@cindex @code{deprecated} attribute.
The @code{deprecated} attribute results in a warning if the function
is used anywhere in the source file.  This is useful when identifying
functions that are expected to be removed in a future version of a
program.  The warning also includes the location of the declaration
of the deprecated function, to enable users to easily find further
information about why the function is deprecated, or what they should
do instead.  Note that the warnings only occurs for uses:

@smallexample
int old_fn () __attribute__ ((deprecated));
int old_fn ();
int (*fn_ptr)() = old_fn;
@end smallexample

results in a warning on line 3 but not line 2.  The optional msg
argument, which must be a string, will be printed in the warning if
present.

The @code{deprecated} attribute can also be used for variables and
types (@pxref{Variable Attributes}, @pxref{Type Attributes}.)

@item disinterrupt
@cindex @code{disinterrupt} attribute
On MeP targets, this attribute causes the compiler to emit
instructions to disable interrupts for the duration of the given
function.

@item dllexport
@cindex @code{__declspec(dllexport)}
On Microsoft Windows targets and Symbian OS targets the
@code{dllexport} attribute causes the compiler to provide a global
pointer to a pointer in a DLL, so that it can be referenced with the
@code{dllimport} attribute.  On Microsoft Windows targets, the pointer
name is formed by combining @code{_imp__} and the function or variable
name.

You can use @code{__declspec(dllexport)} as a synonym for
@code{__attribute__ ((dllexport))} for compatibility with other
compilers.

On systems that support the @code{visibility} attribute, this
attribute also implies ``default'' visibility.  It is an error to
explicitly specify any other visibility.

Currently, the @code{dllexport} attribute is ignored for inlined
functions, unless the @option{-fkeep-inline-functions} flag has been
used.  The attribute is also ignored for undefined symbols.

When applied to C++ classes, the attribute marks defined non-inlined
member functions and static data members as exports.  Static consts
initialized in-class are not marked unless they are also defined
out-of-class.

For Microsoft Windows targets there are alternative methods for
including the symbol in the DLL's export table such as using a
@file{.def} file with an @code{EXPORTS} section or, with GNU ld, using
the @option{--export-all} linker flag.

@item dllimport
@cindex @code{__declspec(dllimport)}
On Microsoft Windows and Symbian OS targets, the @code{dllimport}
attribute causes the compiler to reference a function or variable via
a global pointer to a pointer that is set up by the DLL exporting the
symbol.  The attribute implies @code{extern}.  On Microsoft Windows
targets, the pointer name is formed by combining @code{_imp__} and the
function or variable name.

You can use @code{__declspec(dllimport)} as a synonym for
@code{__attribute__ ((dllimport))} for compatibility with other
compilers.

On systems that support the @code{visibility} attribute, this
attribute also implies ``default'' visibility.  It is an error to
explicitly specify any other visibility.

Currently, the attribute is ignored for inlined functions.  If the
attribute is applied to a symbol @emph{definition}, an error is reported.
If a symbol previously declared @code{dllimport} is later defined, the
attribute is ignored in subsequent references, and a warning is emitted.
The attribute is also overridden by a subsequent declaration as
@code{dllexport}.

When applied to C++ classes, the attribute marks non-inlined
member functions and static data members as imports.  However, the
attribute is ignored for virtual methods to allow creation of vtables
using thunks.

On the SH Symbian OS target the @code{dllimport} attribute also has
another affect---it can cause the vtable and run-time type information
for a class to be exported.  This happens when the class has a
dllimport'ed constructor or a non-inline, non-pure virtual function
and, for either of those two conditions, the class also has an inline
constructor or destructor and has a key function that is defined in
the current translation unit.

For Microsoft Windows based targets the use of the @code{dllimport}
attribute on functions is not necessary, but provides a small
performance benefit by eliminating a thunk in the DLL@.  The use of the
@code{dllimport} attribute on imported variables was required on older
versions of the GNU linker, but can now be avoided by passing the
@option{--enable-auto-import} switch to the GNU linker.  As with
functions, using the attribute for a variable eliminates a thunk in
the DLL@.

One drawback to using this attribute is that a pointer to a
@emph{variable} marked as @code{dllimport} cannot be used as a constant
address. However, a pointer to a @emph{function} with the
@code{dllimport} attribute can be used as a constant initializer; in
this case, the address of a stub function in the import lib is
referenced.  On Microsoft Windows targets, the attribute can be disabled
for functions by setting the @option{-mnop-fun-dllimport} flag.

@item eightbit_data
@cindex eight bit data on the H8/300, H8/300H, and H8S
Use this attribute on the H8/300, H8/300H, and H8S to indicate that the specified
variable should be placed into the eight bit data section.
The compiler will generate more efficient code for certain operations
on data in the eight bit data area.  Note the eight bit data area is limited to
256 bytes of data.

You must use GAS and GLD from GNU binutils version 2.7 or later for
this attribute to work correctly.

@item exception_handler
@cindex exception handler functions on the Blackfin processor
Use this attribute on the Blackfin to indicate that the specified function
is an exception handler.  The compiler will generate function entry and
exit sequences suitable for use in an exception handler when this
attribute is present.

@item externally_visible
@cindex @code{externally_visible} attribute.
This attribute, attached to a global variable or function, nullifies
the effect of the @option{-fwhole-program} command-line option, so the
object remains visible outside the current compilation unit.

@item far
@cindex functions which handle memory bank switching
On 68HC11 and 68HC12 the @code{far} attribute causes the compiler to
use a calling convention that takes care of switching memory banks when
entering and leaving a function.  This calling convention is also the
default when using the @option{-mlong-calls} option.

On 68HC12 the compiler will use the @code{call} and @code{rtc} instructions
to call and return from a function.

On 68HC11 the compiler will generate a sequence of instructions
to invoke a board-specific routine to switch the memory bank and call the
real function.  The board-specific routine simulates a @code{call}.
At the end of a function, it will jump to a board-specific routine
instead of using @code{rts}.  The board-specific return routine simulates
the @code{rtc}.

On MeP targets this causes the compiler to use a calling convention
which assumes the called function is too far away for the built-in
addressing modes.

@item fast_interrupt
@cindex interrupt handler functions
Use this attribute on the M32C port to indicate that the specified
function is a fast interrupt handler.  This is just like the
@code{interrupt} attribute, except that @code{freit} is used to return
instead of @code{reit}.

@item fastcall
@cindex functions that pop the argument stack on the 386
On the Intel 386, the @code{fastcall} attribute causes the compiler to
pass the first argument (if of integral type) in the register ECX and
the second argument (if of integral type) in the register EDX@.  Subsequent
and other typed arguments are passed on the stack.  The called function will
pop the arguments off the stack.  If the number of arguments is variable all
arguments are pushed on the stack.

@item format (@var{archetype}, @var{string-index}, @var{first-to-check})
@cindex @code{format} function attribute
@opindex Wformat
The @code{format} attribute specifies that a function takes @code{printf},
@code{scanf}, @code{strftime} or @code{strfmon} style arguments which
should be type-checked against a format string.  For example, the
declaration:

@smallexample
extern int
my_printf (void *my_object, const char *my_format, ...)
      __attribute__ ((format (printf, 2, 3)));
@end smallexample

@noindent
causes the compiler to check the arguments in calls to @code{my_printf}
for consistency with the @code{printf} style format string argument
@code{my_format}.

The parameter @var{archetype} determines how the format string is
interpreted, and should be @code{printf}, @code{scanf}, @code{strftime},
@code{gnu_printf}, @code{gnu_scanf}, @code{gnu_strftime} or
@code{strfmon}.  (You can also use @code{__printf__},
@code{__scanf__}, @code{__strftime__} or @code{__strfmon__}.)  On
MinGW targets, @code{ms_printf}, @code{ms_scanf}, and
@code{ms_strftime} are also present.
@var{archtype} values such as @code{printf} refer to the formats accepted
by the system's C run-time library, while @code{gnu_} values always refer
to the formats accepted by the GNU C Library.  On Microsoft Windows
targets, @code{ms_} values refer to the formats accepted by the
@file{msvcrt.dll} library.
The parameter @var{string-index}
specifies which argument is the format string argument (starting
from 1), while @var{first-to-check} is the number of the first
argument to check against the format string.  For functions
where the arguments are not available to be checked (such as
@code{vprintf}), specify the third parameter as zero.  In this case the
compiler only checks the format string for consistency.  For
@code{strftime} formats, the third parameter is required to be zero.
Since non-static C++ methods have an implicit @code{this} argument, the
arguments of such methods should be counted from two, not one, when
giving values for @var{string-index} and @var{first-to-check}.

In the example above, the format string (@code{my_format}) is the second
argument of the function @code{my_print}, and the arguments to check
start with the third argument, so the correct parameters for the format
attribute are 2 and 3.

@opindex ffreestanding
@opindex fno-builtin
The @code{format} attribute allows you to identify your own functions
which take format strings as arguments, so that GCC can check the
calls to these functions for errors.  The compiler always (unless
@option{-ffreestanding} or @option{-fno-builtin} is used) checks formats
for the standard library functions @code{printf}, @code{fprintf},
@code{sprintf}, @code{scanf}, @code{fscanf}, @code{sscanf}, @code{strftime},
@code{vprintf}, @code{vfprintf} and @code{vsprintf} whenever such
warnings are requested (using @option{-Wformat}), so there is no need to
modify the header file @file{stdio.h}.  In C99 mode, the functions
@code{snprintf}, @code{vsnprintf}, @code{vscanf}, @code{vfscanf} and
@code{vsscanf} are also checked.  Except in strictly conforming C
standard modes, the X/Open function @code{strfmon} is also checked as
are @code{printf_unlocked} and @code{fprintf_unlocked}.
@xref{C Dialect Options,,Options Controlling C Dialect}.

The target may provide additional types of format checks.
@xref{Target Format Checks,,Format Checks Specific to Particular
Target Machines}.

@item format_arg (@var{string-index})
@cindex @code{format_arg} function attribute
@opindex Wformat-nonliteral
The @code{format_arg} attribute specifies that a function takes a format
string for a @code{printf}, @code{scanf}, @code{strftime} or
@code{strfmon} style function and modifies it (for example, to translate
it into another language), so the result can be passed to a
@code{printf}, @code{scanf}, @code{strftime} or @code{strfmon} style
function (with the remaining arguments to the format function the same
as they would have been for the unmodified string).  For example, the
declaration:

@smallexample
extern char *
my_dgettext (char *my_domain, const char *my_format)
      __attribute__ ((format_arg (2)));
@end smallexample

@noindent
causes the compiler to check the arguments in calls to a @code{printf},
@code{scanf}, @code{strftime} or @code{strfmon} type function, whose
format string argument is a call to the @code{my_dgettext} function, for
consistency with the format string argument @code{my_format}.  If the
@code{format_arg} attribute had not been specified, all the compiler
could tell in such calls to format functions would be that the format
string argument is not constant; this would generate a warning when
@option{-Wformat-nonliteral} is used, but the calls could not be checked
without the attribute.

The parameter @var{string-index} specifies which argument is the format
string argument (starting from one).  Since non-static C++ methods have
an implicit @code{this} argument, the arguments of such methods should
be counted from two.

The @code{format-arg} attribute allows you to identify your own
functions which modify format strings, so that GCC can check the
calls to @code{printf}, @code{scanf}, @code{strftime} or @code{strfmon}
type function whose operands are a call to one of your own function.
The compiler always treats @code{gettext}, @code{dgettext}, and
@code{dcgettext} in this manner except when strict ISO C support is
requested by @option{-ansi} or an appropriate @option{-std} option, or
@option{-ffreestanding} or @option{-fno-builtin}
is used.  @xref{C Dialect Options,,Options
Controlling C Dialect}.

@item function_vector
@cindex calling functions through the function vector on H8/300, M16C, M32C and SH2A processors
Use this attribute on the H8/300, H8/300H, and H8S to indicate that the specified
function should be called through the function vector.  Calling a
function through the function vector will reduce code size, however;
the function vector has a limited size (maximum 128 entries on the H8/300
and 64 entries on the H8/300H and H8S) and shares space with the interrupt vector.

In SH2A target, this attribute declares a function to be called using the
TBR relative addressing mode.  The argument to this attribute is the entry
number of the same function in a vector table containing all the TBR
relative addressable functions.  For the successful jump, register TBR
should contain the start address of this TBR relative vector table.
In the startup routine of the user application, user needs to care of this
TBR register initialization.  The TBR relative vector table can have at
max 256 function entries.  The jumps to these functions will be generated
using a SH2A specific, non delayed branch instruction JSR/N @@(disp8,TBR).
You must use GAS and GLD from GNU binutils version 2.7 or later for
this attribute to work correctly.

Please refer the example of M16C target, to see the use of this
attribute while declaring a function,

In an application, for a function being called once, this attribute will
save at least 8 bytes of code; and if other successive calls are being
made to the same function, it will save 2 bytes of code per each of these
calls.

On M16C/M32C targets, the @code{function_vector} attribute declares a
special page subroutine call function. Use of this attribute reduces
the code size by 2 bytes for each call generated to the
subroutine. The argument to the attribute is the vector number entry
from the special page vector table which contains the 16 low-order
bits of the subroutine's entry address. Each vector table has special
page number (18 to 255) which are used in @code{jsrs} instruction.
Jump addresses of the routines are generated by adding 0x0F0000 (in
case of M16C targets) or 0xFF0000 (in case of M32C targets), to the 2
byte addresses set in the vector table. Therefore you need to ensure
that all the special page vector routines should get mapped within the
address range 0x0F0000 to 0x0FFFFF (for M16C) and 0xFF0000 to 0xFFFFFF
(for M32C).

In the following example 2 bytes will be saved for each call to
function @code{foo}.

@smallexample
void foo (void) __attribute__((function_vector(0x18)));
void foo (void)
@{
@}

void bar (void)
@{
    foo();
@}
@end smallexample

If functions are defined in one file and are called in another file,
then be sure to write this declaration in both files.

This attribute is ignored for R8C target.

@item interrupt
@cindex interrupt handler functions
Use this attribute on the ARM, AVR, CRX, M32C, M32R/D, m68k, MeP, MIPS
and Xstormy16 ports to indicate that the specified function is an
interrupt handler.  The compiler will generate function entry and exit
sequences suitable for use in an interrupt handler when this attribute
is present.

Note, interrupt handlers for the Blackfin, H8/300, H8/300H, H8S, and
SH processors can be specified via the @code{interrupt_handler} attribute.

Note, on the AVR, interrupts will be enabled inside the function.

Note, for the ARM, you can specify the kind of interrupt to be handled by
adding an optional parameter to the interrupt attribute like this:

@smallexample
void f () __attribute__ ((interrupt ("IRQ")));
@end smallexample

Permissible values for this parameter are: IRQ, FIQ, SWI, ABORT and UNDEF@.

On ARMv7-M the interrupt type is ignored, and the attribute means the function
may be called with a word aligned stack pointer.

On MIPS targets, you can use the following attributes to modify the behavior
of an interrupt handler:
@table @code
@item use_shadow_register_set
@cindex @code{use_shadow_register_set} attribute
Assume that the handler uses a shadow register set, instead of
the main general-purpose registers.

@item keep_interrupts_masked
@cindex @code{keep_interrupts_masked} attribute
Keep interrupts masked for the whole function.  Without this attribute,
GCC tries to reenable interrupts for as much of the function as it can.

@item use_debug_exception_return
@cindex @code{use_debug_exception_return} attribute
Return using the @code{deret} instruction.  Interrupt handlers that don't
have this attribute return using @code{eret} instead.
@end table

You can use any combination of these attributes, as shown below:
@smallexample
void __attribute__ ((interrupt)) v0 ();
void __attribute__ ((interrupt, use_shadow_register_set)) v1 ();
void __attribute__ ((interrupt, keep_interrupts_masked)) v2 ();
void __attribute__ ((interrupt, use_debug_exception_return)) v3 ();
void __attribute__ ((interrupt, use_shadow_register_set,
                     keep_interrupts_masked)) v4 ();
void __attribute__ ((interrupt, use_shadow_register_set,
                     use_debug_exception_return)) v5 ();
void __attribute__ ((interrupt, keep_interrupts_masked,
                     use_debug_exception_return)) v6 ();
void __attribute__ ((interrupt, use_shadow_register_set,
                     keep_interrupts_masked,
                     use_debug_exception_return)) v7 ();
@end smallexample

@item interrupt_handler
@cindex interrupt handler functions on the Blackfin, m68k, H8/300 and SH processors
Use this attribute on the Blackfin, m68k, H8/300, H8/300H, H8S, and SH to
indicate that the specified function is an interrupt handler.  The compiler
will generate function entry and exit sequences suitable for use in an
interrupt handler when this attribute is present.

@item interrupt_thread
@cindex interrupt thread functions on fido
Use this attribute on fido, a subarchitecture of the m68k, to indicate
that the specified function is an interrupt handler that is designed
to run as a thread.  The compiler omits generate prologue/epilogue
sequences and replaces the return instruction with a @code{sleep}
instruction.  This attribute is available only on fido.

@item isr
@cindex interrupt service routines on ARM
Use this attribute on ARM to write Interrupt Service Routines. This is an
alias to the @code{interrupt} attribute above.

@item kspisusp
@cindex User stack pointer in interrupts on the Blackfin
When used together with @code{interrupt_handler}, @code{exception_handler}
or @code{nmi_handler}, code will be generated to load the stack pointer
from the USP register in the function prologue.

@item l1_text
@cindex @code{l1_text} function attribute
This attribute specifies a function to be placed into L1 Instruction
SRAM@. The function will be put into a specific section named @code{.l1.text}.
With @option{-mfdpic}, function calls with a such function as the callee
or caller will use inlined PLT.

@item l2
@cindex @code{l2} function attribute
On the Blackfin, this attribute specifies a function to be placed into L2
SRAM. The function will be put into a specific section named
@code{.l1.text}. With @option{-mfdpic}, callers of such functions will use
an inlined PLT.

@item long_call/short_call
@cindex indirect calls on ARM
This attribute specifies how a particular function is called on
ARM@.  Both attributes override the @option{-mlong-calls} (@pxref{ARM Options})
command line switch and @code{#pragma long_calls} settings.  The
@code{long_call} attribute indicates that the function might be far
away from the call site and require a different (more expensive)
calling sequence.   The @code{short_call} attribute always places
the offset to the function from the call site into the @samp{BL}
instruction directly.

@item longcall/shortcall
@cindex functions called via pointer on the RS/6000 and PowerPC
On the Blackfin, RS/6000 and PowerPC, the @code{longcall} attribute
indicates that the function might be far away from the call site and
require a different (more expensive) calling sequence.  The
@code{shortcall} attribute indicates that the function is always close
enough for the shorter calling sequence to be used.  These attributes
override both the @option{-mlongcall} switch and, on the RS/6000 and
PowerPC, the @code{#pragma longcall} setting.

@xref{RS/6000 and PowerPC Options}, for more information on whether long
calls are necessary.

@item long_call/near/far
@cindex indirect calls on MIPS
These attributes specify how a particular function is called on MIPS@.
The attributes override the @option{-mlong-calls} (@pxref{MIPS Options})
command-line switch.  The @code{long_call} and @code{far} attributes are
synonyms, and cause the compiler to always call
the function by first loading its address into a register, and then using
the contents of that register.  The @code{near} attribute has the opposite
effect; it specifies that non-PIC calls should be made using the more 
efficient @code{jal} instruction.

@item malloc
@cindex @code{malloc} attribute
The @code{malloc} attribute is used to tell the compiler that a function
may be treated as if any non-@code{NULL} pointer it returns cannot
alias any other pointer valid when the function returns.
This will often improve optimization.
Standard functions with this property include @code{malloc} and
@code{calloc}.  @code{realloc}-like functions have this property as
long as the old pointer is never referred to (including comparing it
to the new pointer) after the function returns a non-@code{NULL}
value.

@item mips16/nomips16
@cindex @code{mips16} attribute
@cindex @code{nomips16} attribute

On MIPS targets, you can use the @code{mips16} and @code{nomips16}
function attributes to locally select or turn off MIPS16 code generation.
A function with the @code{mips16} attribute is emitted as MIPS16 code, 
while MIPS16 code generation is disabled for functions with the 
@code{nomips16} attribute.  These attributes override the 
@option{-mips16} and @option{-mno-mips16} options on the command line
(@pxref{MIPS Options}).  

When compiling files containing mixed MIPS16 and non-MIPS16 code, the
preprocessor symbol @code{__mips16} reflects the setting on the command line,
not that within individual functions.  Mixed MIPS16 and non-MIPS16 code
may interact badly with some GCC extensions such as @code{__builtin_apply}
(@pxref{Constructing Calls}).

@item model (@var{model-name})
@cindex function addressability on the M32R/D
@cindex variable addressability on the IA-64

On the M32R/D, use this attribute to set the addressability of an
object, and of the code generated for a function.  The identifier
@var{model-name} is one of @code{small}, @code{medium}, or
@code{large}, representing each of the code models.

Small model objects live in the lower 16MB of memory (so that their
addresses can be loaded with the @code{ld24} instruction), and are
callable with the @code{bl} instruction.

Medium model objects may live anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the
compiler will generate @code{seth/add3} instructions to load their addresses),
and are callable with the @code{bl} instruction.

Large model objects may live anywhere in the 32-bit address space (the
compiler will generate @code{seth/add3} instructions to load their addresses),
and may not be reachable with the @code{bl} instruction (the compiler will
generate the much slower @code{seth/add3/jl} instruction sequence).

On IA-64, use this attribute to set the addressability of an object.
At present, the only supported identifier for @var{model-name} is
@code{small}, indicating addressability via ``small'' (22-bit)
addresses (so that their addresses can be loaded with the @code{addl}
instruction).  Caveat: such addressing is by definition not position
independent and hence this attribute must not be used for objects
defined by shared libraries.

@item ms_abi/sysv_abi
@cindex @code{ms_abi} attribute
@cindex @code{sysv_abi} attribute

On 64-bit x86_64-*-* targets, you can use an ABI attribute to indicate
which calling convention should be used for a function.  The @code{ms_abi}
attribute tells the compiler to use the Microsoft ABI, while the
@code{sysv_abi} attribute tells the compiler to use the ABI used on
GNU/Linux and other systems.  The default is to use the Microsoft ABI
when targeting Windows.  On all other systems, the default is the AMD ABI.

Note, This feature is currently sorried out for Windows targets trying to

@item ms_hook_prologue
@cindex @code{ms_hook_prologue} attribute

On 32 bit i[34567]86-*-* targets, you can use this function attribute to make
gcc generate the "hot-patching" function prologue used in Win32 API
functions in Microsoft Windows XP Service Pack 2 and newer. This requires
support for the swap suffix in the assembler. (GNU Binutils 2.19.51 or later)

@item naked
@cindex function without a prologue/epilogue code
Use this attribute on the ARM, AVR, IP2K and SPU ports to indicate that
the specified function does not need prologue/epilogue sequences generated by
the compiler.  It is up to the programmer to provide these sequences. The 
only statements that can be safely included in naked functions are 
@code{asm} statements that do not have operands.  All other statements,
including declarations of local variables, @code{if} statements, and so 
forth, should be avoided.  Naked functions should be used to implement the 
body of an assembly function, while allowing the compiler to construct
the requisite function declaration for the assembler.

@item near
@cindex functions which do not handle memory bank switching on 68HC11/68HC12
On 68HC11 and 68HC12 the @code{near} attribute causes the compiler to
use the normal calling convention based on @code{jsr} and @code{rts}.
This attribute can be used to cancel the effect of the @option{-mlong-calls}
option.

On MeP targets this attribute causes the compiler to assume the called
function is close enough to use the normal calling convention,
overriding the @code{-mtf} command line option.

@item nesting
@cindex Allow nesting in an interrupt handler on the Blackfin processor.
Use this attribute together with @code{interrupt_handler},
@code{exception_handler} or @code{nmi_handler} to indicate that the function
entry code should enable nested interrupts or exceptions.

@item nmi_handler
@cindex NMI handler functions on the Blackfin processor
Use this attribute on the Blackfin to indicate that the specified function
is an NMI handler.  The compiler will generate function entry and
exit sequences suitable for use in an NMI handler when this
attribute is present.

@item no_instrument_function
@cindex @code{no_instrument_function} function attribute
@opindex finstrument-functions
If @option{-finstrument-functions} is given, profiling function calls will
be generated at entry and exit of most user-compiled functions.
Functions with this attribute will not be so instrumented.

@item noinline
@cindex @code{noinline} function attribute
This function attribute prevents a function from being considered for
inlining.
@c Don't enumerate the optimizations by name here; we try to be
@c future-compatible with this mechanism.
If the function does not have side-effects, there are optimizations
other than inlining that causes function calls to be optimized away,
although the function call is live.  To keep such calls from being
optimized away, put
@smallexample
asm ("");
@end smallexample
(@pxref{Extended Asm}) in the called function, to serve as a special
side-effect.

@item noclone
@cindex @code{noclone} function attribute
This function attribute prevents a function from being considered for
cloning - a mechanism which produces specialized copies of functions
and which is (currently) performed by interprocedural constant
propagation.

@item nonnull (@var{arg-index}, @dots{})
@cindex @code{nonnull} function attribute
The @code{nonnull} attribute specifies that some function parameters should
be non-null pointers.  For instance, the declaration:

@smallexample
extern void *
my_memcpy (void *dest, const void *src, size_t len)
        __attribute__((nonnull (1, 2)));
@end smallexample

@noindent
causes the compiler to check that, in calls to @code{my_memcpy},
arguments @var{dest} and @var{src} are non-null.  If the compiler
determines that a null pointer is passed in an argument slot marked
as non-null, and the @option{-Wnonnull} option is enabled, a warning
is issued.  The compiler may also choose to make optimizations based
on the knowledge that certain function arguments will not be null.

If no argument index list is given to the @code{nonnull} attribute,
all pointer arguments are marked as non-null.  To illustrate, the
following declaration is equivalent to the previous example:

@smallexample
extern void *
my_memcpy (void *dest, const void *src, size_t len)
        __attribute__((nonnull));
@end smallexample

@item noreturn
@cindex @code{noreturn} function attribute
A few standard library functions, such as @code{abort} and @code{exit},
cannot return.  GCC knows this automatically.  Some programs define
their own functions that never return.  You can declare them
@code{noreturn} to tell the compiler this fact.  For example,

@smallexample
@group
void fatal () __attribute__ ((noreturn));

void
fatal (/* @r{@dots{}} */)
@{
  /* @r{@dots{}} */ /* @r{Print error message.} */ /* @r{@dots{}} */
  exit (1);
@}
@end group
@end smallexample

The @code{noreturn} keyword tells the compiler to assume that
@code{fatal} cannot return.  It can then optimize without regard to what
would happen if @code{fatal} ever did return.  This makes slightly
better code.  More importantly, it helps avoid spurious warnings of
uninitialized variables.

The @code{noreturn} keyword does not affect the exceptional path when that
applies: a @code{noreturn}-marked function may still return to the caller
by throwing an exception or calling @code{longjmp}.

Do not assume that registers saved by the calling function are
restored before calling the @code{noreturn} function.

It does not make sense for a @code{noreturn} function to have a return
type other than @code{void}.

The attribute @code{noreturn} is not implemented in GCC versions
earlier than 2.5.  An alternative way to declare that a function does
not return, which works in the current version and in some older
versions, is as follows:

@smallexample
typedef void voidfn ();

volatile voidfn fatal;
@end smallexample

This approach does not work in GNU C++.

@item nothrow
@cindex @code{nothrow} function attribute
The @code{nothrow} attribute is used to inform the compiler that a
function cannot throw an exception.  For example, most functions in
the standard C library can be guaranteed not to throw an exception
with the notable exceptions of @code{qsort} and @code{bsearch} that
take function pointer arguments.  The @code{nothrow} attribute is not
implemented in GCC versions earlier than 3.3.

@item optimize
@cindex @code{optimize} function attribute
The @code{optimize} attribute is used to specify that a function is to
be compiled with different optimization options than specified on the
command line.  Arguments can either be numbers or strings.  Numbers
are assumed to be an optimization level.  Strings that begin with
@code{O} are assumed to be an optimization option, while other options
are assumed to be used with a @code{-f} prefix.  You can also use the
@samp{#pragma GCC optimize} pragma to set the optimization options
that affect more than one function.
@xref{Function Specific Option Pragmas}, for details about the
@samp{#pragma GCC optimize} pragma.

This can be used for instance to have frequently executed functions
compiled with more aggressive optimization options that produce faster
and larger code, while other functions can be called with less
aggressive options.

@item pcs
@cindex @code{pcs} function attribute

The @code{pcs} attribute can be used to control the calling convention
used for a function on ARM.  The attribute takes an argument that specifies
the calling convention to use.

When compiling using the AAPCS ABI (or a variant of that) then valid
values for the argument are @code{"aapcs"} and @code{"aapcs-vfp"}.  In
order to use a variant other than @code{"aapcs"} then the compiler must
be permitted to use the appropriate co-processor registers (i.e., the
VFP registers must be available in order to use @code{"aapcs-vfp"}).
For example,

@smallexample
/* Argument passed in r0, and result returned in r0+r1.  */
double f2d (float) __attribute__((pcs("aapcs")));
@end smallexample

Variadic functions always use the @code{"aapcs"} calling convention and
the compiler will reject attempts to specify an alternative.

@item pure
@cindex @code{pure} function attribute
Many functions have no effects except the return value and their
return value depends only on the parameters and/or global variables.
Such a function can be subject
to common subexpression elimination and loop optimization just as an
arithmetic operator would be.  These functions should be declared
with the attribute @code{pure}.  For example,

@smallexample
int square (int) __attribute__ ((pure));
@end smallexample

@noindent
says that the hypothetical function @code{square} is safe to call
fewer times than the program says.

Some of common examples of pure functions are @code{strlen} or @code{memcmp}.
Interesting non-pure functions are functions with infinite loops or those
depending on volatile memory or other system resource, that may change between
two consecutive calls (such as @code{feof} in a multithreading environment).

The attribute @code{pure} is not implemented in GCC versions earlier
than 2.96.

@item hot
@cindex @code{hot} function attribute
The @code{hot} attribute is used to inform the compiler that a function is a
hot spot of the compiled program.  The function is optimized more aggressively
and on many target it is placed into special subsection of the text section so
all hot functions appears close together improving locality.

When profile feedback is available, via @option{-fprofile-use}, hot functions
are automatically detected and this attribute is ignored.

The @code{hot} attribute is not implemented in GCC versions earlier
than 4.3.

@item cold
@cindex @code{cold} function attribute
The @code{cold} attribute is used to inform the compiler that a function is
unlikely executed.  The function is optimized for size rather than speed and on
many targets it is placed into special subsection of the text section so all
cold functions appears close together improving code locality of non-cold parts
of program.  The paths leading to call of cold functions within code are marked
as unlikely by the branch prediction mechanism. It is thus useful to mark
functions used to handle unlikely conditions, such as @code{perror}, as cold to
improve optimization of hot functions that do call marked functions in rare
occasions.

When profile feedback is available, via @option{-fprofile-use}, hot functions
are automatically detected and this attribute is ignored.

The @code{cold} attribute is not implemented in GCC versions earlier than 4.3.

@item regparm (@var{number})
@cindex @code{regparm} attribute
@cindex functions that are passed arguments in registers on the 386
On the Intel 386, the @code{regparm} attribute causes the compiler to
pass arguments number one to @var{number} if they are of integral type
in registers EAX, EDX, and ECX instead of on the stack.  Functions that
take a variable number of arguments will continue to be passed all of their
arguments on the stack.

Beware that on some ELF systems this attribute is unsuitable for
global functions in shared libraries with lazy binding (which is the
default).  Lazy binding will send the first call via resolving code in
the loader, which might assume EAX, EDX and ECX can be clobbered, as
per the standard calling conventions.  Solaris 8 is affected by this.
GNU systems with GLIBC 2.1 or higher, and FreeBSD, are believed to be
safe since the loaders there save EAX, EDX and ECX.  (Lazy binding can be
disabled with the linker or the loader if desired, to avoid the
problem.)

@item sseregparm
@cindex @code{sseregparm} attribute
On the Intel 386 with SSE support, the @code{sseregparm} attribute
causes the compiler to pass up to 3 floating point arguments in
SSE registers instead of on the stack.  Functions that take a
variable number of arguments will continue to pass all of their
floating point arguments on the stack.

@item force_align_arg_pointer
@cindex @code{force_align_arg_pointer} attribute
On the Intel x86, the @code{force_align_arg_pointer} attribute may be
applied to individual function definitions, generating an alternate
prologue and epilogue that realigns the runtime stack if necessary.
This supports mixing legacy codes that run with a 4-byte aligned stack
with modern codes that keep a 16-byte stack for SSE compatibility.

@item resbank
@cindex @code{resbank} attribute
On the SH2A target, this attribute enables the high-speed register
saving and restoration using a register bank for @code{interrupt_handler}
routines.  Saving to the bank is performed automatically after the CPU
accepts an interrupt that uses a register bank.

The nineteen 32-bit registers comprising general register R0 to R14,
control register GBR, and system registers MACH, MACL, and PR and the
vector table address offset are saved into a register bank.  Register
banks are stacked in first-in last-out (FILO) sequence.  Restoration
from the bank is executed by issuing a RESBANK instruction.

@item returns_twice
@cindex @code{returns_twice} attribute
The @code{returns_twice} attribute tells the compiler that a function may
return more than one time.  The compiler will ensure that all registers
are dead before calling such a function and will emit a warning about
the variables that may be clobbered after the second return from the
function.  Examples of such functions are @code{setjmp} and @code{vfork}.
The @code{longjmp}-like counterpart of such function, if any, might need
to be marked with the @code{noreturn} attribute.

@item saveall
@cindex save all registers on the Blackfin, H8/300, H8/300H, and H8S
Use this attribute on the Blackfin, H8/300, H8/300H, and H8S to indicate that
all registers except the stack pointer should be saved in the prologue
regardless of whether they are used or not.

@item section ("@var{section-name}")
@cindex @code{section} function attribute
Normally, the compiler places the code it generates in the @code{text} section.
Sometimes, however, you need additional sections, or you need certain
particular functions to appear in special sections.  The @code{section}
attribute specifies that a function lives in a particular section.
For example, the declaration:

@smallexample
extern void foobar (void) __attribute__ ((section ("bar")));
@end smallexample

@noindent
puts the function @code{foobar} in the @code{bar} section.

Some file formats do not support arbitrary sections so the @code{section}
attribute is not available on all platforms.
If you need to map the entire contents of a module to a particular
section, consider using the facilities of the linker instead.

@item sentinel
@cindex @code{sentinel} function attribute
This function attribute ensures that a parameter in a function call is
an explicit @code{NULL}.  The attribute is only valid on variadic
functions.  By default, the sentinel is located at position zero, the
last parameter of the function call.  If an optional integer position
argument P is supplied to the attribute, the sentinel must be located at
position P counting backwards from the end of the argument list.

@smallexample
__attribute__ ((sentinel))
is equivalent to
__attribute__ ((sentinel(0)))
@end smallexample

The attribute is automatically set with a position of 0 for the built-in
functions @code{execl} and @code{execlp}.  The built-in function
@code{execle} has the attribute set with a position of 1.

A valid @code{NULL} in this context is defined as zero with any pointer
type.  If your system defines the @code{NULL} macro with an integer type
then you need to add an explicit cast.  GCC replaces @code{stddef.h}
with a copy that redefines NULL appropriately.

The warnings for missing or incorrect sentinels are enabled with
@option{-Wformat}.

@item short_call
See long_call/short_call.

@item shortcall
See longcall/shortcall.

@item signal
@cindex signal handler functions on the AVR processors
Use this attribute on the AVR to indicate that the specified
function is a signal handler.  The compiler will generate function
entry and exit sequences suitable for use in a signal handler when this
attribute is present.  Interrupts will be disabled inside the function.

@item sp_switch
Use this attribute on the SH to indicate an @code{interrupt_handler}
function should switch to an alternate stack.  It expects a string
argument that names a global variable holding the address of the
alternate stack.

@smallexample
void *alt_stack;
void f () __attribute__ ((interrupt_handler,
                          sp_switch ("alt_stack")));
@end smallexample

@item stdcall
@cindex functions that pop the argument stack on the 386
On the Intel 386, the @code{stdcall} attribute causes the compiler to
assume that the called function will pop off the stack space used to
pass arguments, unless it takes a variable number of arguments.

@item syscall_linkage
@cindex @code{syscall_linkage} attribute
This attribute is used to modify the IA64 calling convention by marking
all input registers as live at all function exits.  This makes it possible
to restart a system call after an interrupt without having to save/restore
the input registers.  This also prevents kernel data from leaking into
application code.

@item target
@cindex @code{target} function attribute
The @code{target} attribute is used to specify that a function is to
be compiled with different target options than specified on the
command line.  This can be used for instance to have functions
compiled with a different ISA (instruction set architecture) than the
default.  You can also use the @samp{#pragma GCC target} pragma to set
more than one function to be compiled with specific target options.
@xref{Function Specific Option Pragmas}, for details about the
@samp{#pragma GCC target} pragma.

For instance on a 386, you could compile one function with
@code{target("sse4.1,arch=core2")} and another with
@code{target("sse4a,arch=amdfam10")} that would be equivalent to
compiling the first function with @option{-msse4.1} and
@option{-march=core2} options, and the second function with
@option{-msse4a} and @option{-march=amdfam10} options.  It is up to the
user to make sure that a function is only invoked on a machine that
supports the particular ISA it was compiled for (for example by using
@code{cpuid} on 386 to determine what feature bits and architecture
family are used).

@smallexample
int core2_func (void) __attribute__ ((__target__ ("arch=core2")));
int sse3_func (void) __attribute__ ((__target__ ("sse3")));
@end smallexample

On the 386, the following options are allowed:

@table @samp
@item abm
@itemx no-abm
@cindex @code{target("abm")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the advanced bit instructions.

@item aes
@itemx no-aes
@cindex @code{target("aes")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the AES instructions.

@item mmx
@itemx no-mmx
@cindex @code{target("mmx")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the MMX instructions.

@item pclmul
@itemx no-pclmul
@cindex @code{target("pclmul")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the PCLMUL instructions.

@item popcnt
@itemx no-popcnt
@cindex @code{target("popcnt")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the POPCNT instruction.

@item sse
@itemx no-sse
@cindex @code{target("sse")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the SSE instructions.

@item sse2
@itemx no-sse2
@cindex @code{target("sse2")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the SSE2 instructions.

@item sse3
@itemx no-sse3
@cindex @code{target("sse3")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the SSE3 instructions.

@item sse4
@itemx no-sse4
@cindex @code{target("sse4")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the SSE4 instructions (both SSE4.1
and SSE4.2).

@item sse4.1
@itemx no-sse4.1
@cindex @code{target("sse4.1")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the sse4.1 instructions.

@item sse4.2
@itemx no-sse4.2
@cindex @code{target("sse4.2")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the sse4.2 instructions.

@item sse4a
@itemx no-sse4a
@cindex @code{target("sse4a")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the SSE4A instructions.

@item fma4
@itemx no-fma4
@cindex @code{target("fma4")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the FMA4 instructions.

@item ssse3
@itemx no-ssse3
@cindex @code{target("ssse3")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the SSSE3 instructions.

@item cld
@itemx no-cld
@cindex @code{target("cld")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the CLD before string moves.

@item fancy-math-387
@itemx no-fancy-math-387
@cindex @code{target("fancy-math-387")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the @code{sin}, @code{cos}, and
@code{sqrt} instructions on the 387 floating point unit.

@item fused-madd
@itemx no-fused-madd
@cindex @code{target("fused-madd")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the fused multiply/add instructions.

@item ieee-fp
@itemx no-ieee-fp
@cindex @code{target("ieee-fp")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of floating point that depends on IEEE arithmetic.

@item inline-all-stringops
@itemx no-inline-all-stringops
@cindex @code{target("inline-all-stringops")} attribute
Enable/disable inlining of string operations.

@item inline-stringops-dynamically
@itemx no-inline-stringops-dynamically
@cindex @code{target("inline-stringops-dynamically")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of the inline code to do small string
operations and calling the library routines for large operations.

@item align-stringops
@itemx no-align-stringops
@cindex @code{target("align-stringops")} attribute
Do/do not align destination of inlined string operations.

@item recip
@itemx no-recip
@cindex @code{target("recip")} attribute
Enable/disable the generation of RCPSS, RCPPS, RSQRTSS and RSQRTPS
instructions followed an additional Newton-Raphson step instead of
doing a floating point division.

@item arch=@var{ARCH}
@cindex @code{target("arch=@var{ARCH}")} attribute
Specify the architecture to generate code for in compiling the function.

@item tune=@var{TUNE}
@cindex @code{target("tune=@var{TUNE}")} attribute
Specify the architecture to tune for in compiling the function.

@item fpmath=@var{FPMATH}
@cindex @code{target("fpmath=@var{FPMATH}")} attribute
Specify which floating point unit to use.  The
@code{target("fpmath=sse,387")} option must be specified as
@code{target("fpmath=sse+387")} because the comma would separate
different options.
@end table

On the 386, you can use either multiple strings to specify multiple
options, or you can separate the option with a comma (@code{,}).

On the 386, the inliner will not inline a function that has different
target options than the caller, unless the callee has a subset of the
target options of the caller.  For example a function declared with
@code{target("sse3")} can inline a function with
@code{target("sse2")}, since @code{-msse3} implies @code{-msse2}.

The @code{target} attribute is not implemented in GCC versions earlier
than 4.4, and at present only the 386 uses it.

@item tiny_data
@cindex tiny data section on the H8/300H and H8S
Use this attribute on the H8/300H and H8S to indicate that the specified
variable should be placed into the tiny data section.
The compiler will generate more efficient code for loads and stores
on data in the tiny data section.  Note the tiny data area is limited to
slightly under 32kbytes of data.

@item trap_exit
Use this attribute on the SH for an @code{interrupt_handler} to return using
@code{trapa} instead of @code{rte}.  This attribute expects an integer
argument specifying the trap number to be used.

@item unused
@cindex @code{unused} attribute.
This attribute, attached to a function, means that the function is meant
to be possibly unused.  GCC will not produce a warning for this
function.

@item used
@cindex @code{used} attribute.
This attribute, attached to a function, means that code must be emitted
for the function even if it appears that the function is not referenced.
This is useful, for example, when the function is referenced only in
inline assembly.

@item version_id
@cindex @code{version_id} attribute
This IA64 HP-UX attribute, attached to a global variable or function, renames a
symbol to contain a version string, thus allowing for function level
versioning.  HP-UX system header files may use version level functioning
for some system calls.

@smallexample
extern int foo () __attribute__((version_id ("20040821")));
@end smallexample

Calls to @var{foo} will be mapped to calls to @var{foo@{20040821@}}.

@item visibility ("@var{visibility_type}")
@cindex @code{visibility} attribute
This attribute affects the linkage of the declaration to which it is attached.
There are four supported @var{visibility_type} values: default,
hidden, protected or internal visibility.

@smallexample
void __attribute__ ((visibility ("protected")))
f () @{ /* @r{Do something.} */; @}
int i __attribute__ ((visibility ("hidden")));
@end smallexample

The possible values of @var{visibility_type} correspond to the
visibility settings in the ELF gABI.

@table @dfn
@c keep this list of visibilities in alphabetical order.

@item default
Default visibility is the normal case for the object file format.
This value is available for the visibility attribute to override other
options that may change the assumed visibility of entities.

On ELF, default visibility means that the declaration is visible to other
modules and, in shared libraries, means that the declared entity may be
overridden.

On Darwin, default visibility means that the declaration is visible to
other modules.

Default visibility corresponds to ``external linkage'' in the language.

@item hidden
Hidden visibility indicates that the entity declared will have a new
form of linkage, which we'll call ``hidden linkage''.  Two
declarations of an object with hidden linkage refer to the same object
if they are in the same shared object.

@item internal
Internal visibility is like hidden visibility, but with additional
processor specific semantics.  Unless otherwise specified by the
psABI, GCC defines internal visibility to mean that a function is
@emph{never} called from another module.  Compare this with hidden
functions which, while they cannot be referenced directly by other
modules, can be referenced indirectly via function pointers.  By
indicating that a function cannot be called from outside the module,
GCC may for instance omit the load of a PIC register since it is known
that the calling function loaded the correct value.

@item protected
Protected visibility is like default visibility except that it
indicates that references within the defining module will bind to the
definition in that module.  That is, the declared entity cannot be
overridden by another module.

@end table

All visibilities are supported on many, but not all, ELF targets
(supported when the assembler supports the @samp{.visibility}
pseudo-op).  Default visibility is supported everywhere.  Hidden
visibility is supported on Darwin targets.

The visibility attribute should be applied only to declarations which
would otherwise have external linkage.  The attribute should be applied
consistently, so that the same entity should not be declared with
different settings of the attribute.

In C++, the visibility attribute applies to types as well as functions
and objects, because in C++ types have linkage.  A class must not have
greater visibility than its non-static data member types and bases,
and class members default to the visibility of their class.  Also, a
declaration without explicit visibility is limited to the visibility
of its type.

In C++, you can mark member functions and static member variables of a
class with the visibility attribute.  This is useful if you know a
particular method or static member variable should only be used from
one shared object; then you can mark it hidden while the rest of the
class has default visibility.  Care must be taken to avoid breaking
the One Definition Rule; for example, it is usually not useful to mark
an inline method as hidden without marking the whole class as hidden.

A C++ namespace declaration can also have the visibility attribute.
This attribute applies only to the particular namespace body, not to
other definitions of the same namespace; it is equivalent to using
@samp{#pragma GCC visibility} before and after the namespace
definition (@pxref{Visibility Pragmas}).

In C++, if a template argument has limited visibility, this
restriction is implicitly propagated to the template instantiation.
Otherwise, template instantiations and specializations default to the
visibility of their template.

If both the template and enclosing class have explicit visibility, the
visibility from the template is used.

@item vliw
@cindex @code{vliw} attribute
On MeP, the @code{vliw} attribute tells the compiler to emit
instructions in VLIW mode instead of core mode.  Note that this
attribute is not allowed unless a VLIW coprocessor has been configured
and enabled through command line options.

@item warn_unused_result
@cindex @code{warn_unused_result} attribute
The @code{warn_unused_result} attribute causes a warning to be emitted
if a caller of the function with this attribute does not use its
return value.  This is useful for functions where not checking
the result is either a security problem or always a bug, such as
@code{realloc}.

@smallexample
int fn () __attribute__ ((warn_unused_result));
int foo ()
@{
  if (fn () < 0) return -1;
  fn ();
  return 0;
@}
@end smallexample

results in warning on line 5.

@item weak
@cindex @code{weak} attribute
The @code{weak} attribute causes the declaration to be emitted as a weak
symbol rather than a global.  This is primarily useful in defining
library functions which can be overridden in user code, though it can
also be used with non-function declarations.  Weak symbols are supported
for ELF targets, and also for a.out targets when using the GNU assembler
and linker.

@item weakref
@itemx weakref ("@var{target}")
@cindex @code{weakref} attribute
The @code{weakref} attribute marks a declaration as a weak reference.
Without arguments, it should be accompanied by an @code{alias} attribute
naming the target symbol.  Optionally, the @var{target} may be given as
an argument to @code{weakref} itself.  In either case, @code{weakref}
implicitly marks the declaration as @code{weak}.  Without a
@var{target}, given as an argument to @code{weakref} or to @code{alias},
@code{weakref} is equivalent to @code{weak}.

@smallexample
static int x() __attribute__ ((weakref ("y")));
/* is equivalent to... */
static int x() __attribute__ ((weak, weakref, alias ("y")));
/* and to... */
static int x() __attribute__ ((weakref));
static int x() __attribute__ ((alias ("y")));
@end smallexample

A weak reference is an alias that does not by itself require a
definition to be given for the target symbol.  If the target symbol is
only referenced through weak references, then the becomes a @code{weak}
undefined symbol.  If it is directly referenced, however, then such
strong references prevail, and a definition will be required for the
symbol, not necessarily in the same translation unit.

The effect is equivalent to moving all references to the alias to a
separate translation unit, renaming the alias to the aliased symbol,
declaring it as weak, compiling the two separate translation units and
performing a reloadable link on them.

At present, a declaration to which @code{weakref} is attached can
only be @code{static}.

@end table

You can specify multiple attributes in a declaration by separating them
by commas within the double parentheses or by immediately following an
attribute declaration with another attribute declaration.

@cindex @code{#pragma}, reason for not using
@cindex pragma, reason for not using
Some people object to the @code{__attribute__} feature, suggesting that
ISO C's @code{#pragma} should be used instead.  At the time
@code{__attribute__} was designed, there were two reasons for not doing
this.

@enumerate
@item
It is impossible to generate @code{#pragma} commands from a macro.

@item
There is no telling what the same @code{#pragma} might mean in another
compiler.
@end enumerate

These two reasons applied to almost any application that might have been
proposed for @code{#pragma}.  It was basically a mistake to use
@code{#pragma} for @emph{anything}.

The ISO C99 standard includes @code{_Pragma}, which now allows pragmas
to be generated from macros.  In addition, a @code{#pragma GCC}
namespace is now in use for GCC-specific pragmas.  However, it has been
found convenient to use @code{__attribute__} to achieve a natural
attachment of attributes to their corresponding declarations, whereas
@code{#pragma GCC} is of use for constructs that do not naturally form
part of the grammar.  @xref{Other Directives,,Miscellaneous
Preprocessing Directives, cpp, The GNU C Preprocessor}.

@node Attribute Syntax
@section Attribute Syntax
@cindex attribute syntax

This section describes the syntax with which @code{__attribute__} may be
used, and the constructs to which attribute specifiers bind, for the C
language.  Some details may vary for C++ and Objective-C@.  Because of
infelicities in the grammar for attributes, some forms described here
may not be successfully parsed in all cases.

There are some problems with the semantics of attributes in C++.  For
example, there are no manglings for attributes, although they may affect
code generation, so problems may arise when attributed types are used in
conjunction with templates or overloading.  Similarly, @code{typeid}
does not distinguish between types with different attributes.  Support
for attributes in C++ may be restricted in future to attributes on
declarations only, but not on nested declarators.

@xref{Function Attributes}, for details of the semantics of attributes
applying to functions.  @xref{Variable Attributes}, for details of the
semantics of attributes applying to variables.  @xref{Type Attributes},
for details of the semantics of attributes applying to structure, union
and enumerated types.

An @dfn{attribute specifier} is of the form
@code{__attribute__ ((@var{attribute-list}))}.  An @dfn{attribute list}
is a possibly empty comma-separated sequence of @dfn{attributes}, where
each attribute is one of the following:

@itemize @bullet
@item
Empty.  Empty attributes are ignored.

@item
A word (which may be an identifier such as @code{unused}, or a reserved
word such as @code{const}).

@item
A word, followed by, in parentheses, parameters for the attribute.
These parameters take one of the following forms:

@itemize @bullet
@item
An identifier.  For example, @code{mode} attributes use this form.

@item
An identifier followed by a comma and a non-empty comma-separated list
of expressions.  For example, @code{format} attributes use this form.

@item
A possibly empty comma-separated list of expressions.  For example,
@code{format_arg} attributes use this form with the list being a single
integer constant expression, and @code{alias} attributes use this form
with the list being a single string constant.
@end itemize
@end itemize

An @dfn{attribute specifier list} is a sequence of one or more attribute
specifiers, not separated by any other tokens.

In GNU C, an attribute specifier list may appear after the colon following a
label, other than a @code{case} or @code{default} label.  The only
attribute it makes sense to use after a label is @code{unused}.  This
feature is intended for code generated by programs which contains labels
that may be unused but which is compiled with @option{-Wall}.  It would
not normally be appropriate to use in it human-written code, though it
could be useful in cases where the code that jumps to the label is
contained within an @code{#ifdef} conditional.  GNU C++ only permits
attributes on labels if the attribute specifier is immediately
followed by a semicolon (i.e., the label applies to an empty
statement).  If the semicolon is missing, C++ label attributes are
ambiguous, as it is permissible for a declaration, which could begin
with an attribute list, to be labelled in C++.  Declarations cannot be
labelled in C90 or C99, so the ambiguity does not arise there.

An attribute specifier list may appear as part of a @code{struct},
@code{union} or @code{enum} specifier.  It may go either immediately
after the @code{struct}, @code{union} or @code{enum} keyword, or after
the closing brace.  The former syntax is preferred.
Where attribute specifiers follow the closing brace, they are considered
to relate to the structure, union or enumerated type defined, not to any
enclosing declaration the type specifier appears in, and the type
defined is not complete until after the attribute specifiers.
@c Otherwise, there would be the following problems: a shift/reduce
@c conflict between attributes binding the struct/union/enum and
@c binding to the list of specifiers/qualifiers; and "aligned"
@c attributes could use sizeof for the structure, but the size could be
@c changed later by "packed" attributes.

Otherwise, an attribute specifier appears as part of a declaration,
counting declarations of unnamed parameters and type names, and relates
to that declaration (which may be nested in another declaration, for
example in the case of a parameter declaration), or to a particular declarator
within a declaration.  Where an
attribute specifier is applied to a parameter declared as a function or
an array, it should apply to the function or array rather than the
pointer to which the parameter is implicitly converted, but this is not
yet correctly implemented.

Any list of specifiers and qualifiers at the start of a declaration may
contain attribute specifiers, whether or not such a list may in that
context contain storage class specifiers.  (Some attributes, however,
are essentially in the nature of storage class specifiers, and only make
sense where storage class specifiers may be used; for example,
@code{section}.)  There is one necessary limitation to this syntax: the
first old-style parameter declaration in a function definition cannot
begin with an attribute specifier, because such an attribute applies to
the function instead by syntax described below (which, however, is not
yet implemented in this case).  In some other cases, attribute
specifiers are permitted by this grammar but not yet supported by the
compiler.  All attribute specifiers in this place relate to the
declaration as a whole.  In the obsolescent usage where a type of
@code{int} is implied by the absence of type specifiers, such a list of
specifiers and qualifiers may be an attribute specifier list with no
other specifiers or qualifiers.

At present, the first parameter in a function prototype must have some
type specifier which is not an attribute specifier; this resolves an
ambiguity in the interpretation of @code{void f(int
(__attribute__((foo)) x))}, but is subject to change.  At present, if
the parentheses of a function declarator contain only attributes then
those attributes are ignored, rather than yielding an error or warning
or implying a single parameter of type int, but this is subject to
change.

An attribute specifier list may appear immediately before a declarator
(other than the first) in a comma-separated list of declarators in a
declaration of more than one identifier using a single list of
specifiers and qualifiers.  Such attribute specifiers apply
only to the identifier before whose declarator they appear.  For
example, in

@smallexample
__attribute__((noreturn)) void d0 (void),
    __attribute__((format(printf, 1, 2))) d1 (const char *, ...),
     d2 (void)
@end smallexample

@noindent
the @code{noreturn} attribute applies to all the functions
declared; the @code{format} attribute only applies to @code{d1}.

An attribute specifier list may appear immediately before the comma,
@code{=} or semicolon terminating the declaration of an identifier other
than a function definition.  Such attribute specifiers apply
to the declared object or function.  Where an
assembler name for an object or function is specified (@pxref{Asm
Labels}), the attribute must follow the @code{asm}
specification.

An attribute specifier list may, in future, be permitted to appear after
the declarator in a function definition (before any old-style parameter
declarations or the function body).

Attribute specifiers may be mixed with type qualifiers appearing inside
the @code{[]} of a parameter array declarator, in the C99 construct by
which such qualifiers are applied to the pointer to which the array is
implicitly converted.  Such attribute specifiers apply to the pointer,
not to the array, but at present this is not implemented and they are
ignored.

An attribute specifier list may appear at the start of a nested
declarator.  At present, there are some limitations in this usage: the
attributes correctly apply to the declarator, but for most individual
attributes the semantics this implies are not implemented.
When attribute specifiers follow the @code{*} of a pointer
declarator, they may be mixed with any type qualifiers present.
The following describes the formal semantics of this syntax.  It will make the
most sense if you are familiar with the formal specification of
declarators in the ISO C standard.

Consider (as in C99 subclause 6.7.5 paragraph 4) a declaration @code{T
D1}, where @code{T} contains declaration specifiers that specify a type
@var{Type} (such as @code{int}) and @code{D1} is a declarator that
contains an identifier @var{ident}.  The type specified for @var{ident}
for derived declarators whose type does not include an attribute
specifier is as in the ISO C standard.

If @code{D1} has the form @code{( @var{attribute-specifier-list} D )},
and the declaration @code{T D} specifies the type
``@var{derived-declarator-type-list} @var{Type}'' for @var{ident}, then
@code{T D1} specifies the type ``@var{derived-declarator-type-list}
@var{attribute-specifier-list} @var{Type}'' for @var{ident}.

If @code{D1} has the form @code{*
@var{type-qualifier-and-attribute-specifier-list} D}, and the
declaration @code{T D} specifies the type
``@var{derived-declarator-type-list} @var{Type}'' for @var{ident}, then
@code{T D1} specifies the type ``@var{derived-declarator-type-list}
@var{type-qualifier-and-attribute-specifier-list} @var{Type}'' for
@var{ident}.

For example,

@smallexample
void (__attribute__((noreturn)) ****f) (void);
@end smallexample

@noindent
specifies the type ``pointer to pointer to pointer to pointer to
non-returning function returning @code{void}''.  As another example,

@smallexample
char *__attribute__((aligned(8))) *f;
@end smallexample

@noindent
specifies the type ``pointer to 8-byte-aligned pointer to @code{char}''.
Note again that this does not work with most attributes; for example,
the usage of @samp{aligned} and @samp{noreturn} attributes given above
is not yet supported.

For compatibility with existing code written for compiler versions that
did not implement attributes on nested declarators, some laxity is
allowed in the placing of attributes.  If an attribute that only applies
to types is applied to a declaration, it will be treated as applying to
the type of that declaration.  If an attribute that only applies to
declarations is applied to the type of a declaration, it will be treated
as applying to that declaration; and, for compatibility with code
placing the attributes immediately before the identifier declared, such
an attribute applied to a function return type will be treated as
applying to the function type, and such an attribute applied to an array
element type will be treated as applying to the array type.  If an
attribute that only applies to function types is applied to a
pointer-to-function type, it will be treated as applying to the pointer
target type; if such an attribute is applied to a function return type
that is not a pointer-to-function type, it will be treated as applying
to the function type.

@node Function Prototypes
@section Prototypes and Old-Style Function Definitions
@cindex function prototype declarations
@cindex old-style function definitions
@cindex promotion of formal parameters

GNU C extends ISO C to allow a function prototype to override a later
old-style non-prototype definition.  Consider the following example:

@smallexample
/* @r{Use prototypes unless the compiler is old-fashioned.}  */
#ifdef __STDC__
#define P(x) x
#else
#define P(x) ()
#endif

/* @r{Prototype function declaration.}  */
int isroot P((uid_t));

/* @r{Old-style function definition.}  */
int
isroot (x)   /* @r{??? lossage here ???} */
     uid_t x;
@{
  return x == 0;
@}
@end smallexample

Suppose the type @code{uid_t} happens to be @code{short}.  ISO C does
not allow this example, because subword arguments in old-style
non-prototype definitions are promoted.  Therefore in this example the
function definition's argument is really an @code{int}, which does not
match the prototype argument type of @code{short}.

This restriction of ISO C makes it hard to write code that is portable
to traditional C compilers, because the programmer does not know
whether the @code{uid_t} type is @code{short}, @code{int}, or
@code{long}.  Therefore, in cases like these GNU C allows a prototype
to override a later old-style definition.  More precisely, in GNU C, a
function prototype argument type overrides the argument type specified
by a later old-style definition if the former type is the same as the
latter type before promotion.  Thus in GNU C the above example is
equivalent to the following:

@smallexample
int isroot (uid_t);

int
isroot (uid_t x)
@{
  return x == 0;
@}
@end smallexample

@noindent
GNU C++ does not support old-style function definitions, so this
extension is irrelevant.

@node C++ Comments
@section C++ Style Comments
@cindex //
@cindex C++ comments
@cindex comments, C++ style

In GNU C, you may use C++ style comments, which start with @samp{//} and
continue until the end of the line.  Many other C implementations allow
such comments, and they are included in the 1999 C standard.  However,
C++ style comments are not recognized if you specify an @option{-std}
option specifying a version of ISO C before C99, or @option{-ansi}
(equivalent to @option{-std=c89}).

@node Dollar Signs
@section Dollar Signs in Identifier Names
@cindex $
@cindex dollar signs in identifier names
@cindex identifier names, dollar signs in

In GNU C, you may normally use dollar signs in identifier names.
This is because many traditional C implementations allow such identifiers.
However, dollar signs in identifiers are not supported on a few target
machines, typically because the target assembler does not allow them.

@node Character Escapes
@section The Character @key{ESC} in Constants

You can use the sequence @samp{\e} in a string or character constant to
stand for the ASCII character @key{ESC}.

@node Alignment
@section Inquiring on Alignment of Types or Variables
@cindex alignment
@cindex type alignment
@cindex variable alignment

The keyword @code{__alignof__} allows you to inquire about how an object
is aligned, or the minimum alignment usually required by a type.  Its
syntax is just like @code{sizeof}.

For example, if the target machine requires a @code{double} value to be
aligned on an 8-byte boundary, then @code{__alignof__ (double)} is 8.
This is true on many RISC machines.  On more traditional machine
designs, @code{__alignof__ (double)} is 4 or even 2.

Some machines never actually require alignment; they allow reference to any
data type even at an odd address.  For these machines, @code{__alignof__}
reports the smallest alignment that GCC will give the data type, usually as
mandated by the target ABI.

If the operand of @code{__alignof__} is an lvalue rather than a type,
its value is the required alignment for its type, taking into account
any minimum alignment specified with GCC's @code{__attribute__}
extension (@pxref{Variable Attributes}).  For example, after this
declaration:

@smallexample
struct foo @{ int x; char y; @} foo1;
@end smallexample

@noindent
the value of @code{__alignof__ (foo1.y)} is 1, even though its actual
alignment is probably 2 or 4, the same as @code{__alignof__ (int)}.

It is an error to ask for the alignment of an incomplete type.

@node Variable Attributes
@section Specifying Attributes of Variables
@cindex attribute of variables
@cindex variable attributes

The keyword @code{__attribute__} allows you to specify special
attributes of variables or structure fields.  This keyword is followed
by an attribute specification inside double parentheses.  Some
attributes are currently defined generically for variables.
Other attributes are defined for variables on particular target
systems.  Other attributes are available for functions
(@pxref{Function Attributes}) and for types (@pxref{Type Attributes}).
Other front ends might define more attributes
(@pxref{C++ Extensions,,Extensions to the C++ Language}).

You may also specify attributes with @samp{__} preceding and following
each keyword.  This allows you to use them in header files without
being concerned about a possible macro of the same name.  For example,
you may use @code{__aligned__} instead of @code{aligned}.

@xref{Attribute Syntax}, for details of the exact syntax for using
attributes.

@table @code
@cindex @code{aligned} attribute
@item aligned (@var{alignment})
This attribute specifies a minimum alignment for the variable or
structure field, measured in bytes.  For example, the declaration:

@smallexample
int x __attribute__ ((aligned (16))) = 0;
@end smallexample

@noindent
causes the compiler to allocate the global variable @code{x} on a
16-byte boundary.  On a 68040, this could be used in conjunction with
an @code{asm} expression to access the @code{move16} instruction which
requires 16-byte aligned operands.

You can also specify the alignment of structure fields.  For example, to
create a double-word aligned @code{int} pair, you could write:

@smallexample
struct foo @{ int x[2] __attribute__ ((aligned (8))); @};
@end smallexample

@noindent
This is an alternative to creating a union with a @code{double} member
that forces the union to be double-word aligned.

As in the preceding examples, you can explicitly specify the alignment
(in bytes) that you wish the compiler to use for a given variable or
structure field.  Alternatively, you can leave out the alignment factor
and just ask the compiler to align a variable or field to the
default alignment for the target architecture you are compiling for.
The default alignment is sufficient for all scalar types, but may not be
enough for all vector types on a target which supports vector operations.
The default alignment is fixed for a particular target ABI.

Gcc also provides a target specific macro @code{__BIGGEST_ALIGNMENT__},
which is the largest alignment ever used for any data type on the
target machine you are compiling for.  For example, you could write:

@smallexample
short array[3] __attribute__ ((aligned (__BIGGEST_ALIGNMENT__)));
@end smallexample

The compiler automatically sets the alignment for the declared
variable or field to @code{__BIGGEST_ALIGNMENT__}.  Doing this can
often make copy operations more efficient, because the compiler can
use whatever instructions copy the biggest chunks of memory when
performing copies to or from the variables or fields that you have
aligned this way.  Note that the value of @code{__BIGGEST_ALIGNMENT__}
may change depending on command line options.

When used on a struct, or struct member, the @code{aligned} attribute can
only increase the alignment; in order to decrease it, the @code{packed}
attribute must be specified as well.  When used as part of a typedef, the
@code{aligned} attribute can both increase and decrease alignment, and
specifying the @code{packed} attribute will generate a warning.

Note that the effectiveness of @code{aligned} attributes may be limited
by inherent limitations in your linker.  On many systems, the linker is
only able to arrange for variables to be aligned up to a certain maximum
alignment.  (For some linkers, the maximum supported alignment may
be very very small.)  If your linker is only able to align variables
up to a maximum of 8 byte alignment, then specifying @code{aligned(16)}
in an @code{__attribute__} will still only provide you with 8 byte
alignment.  See your linker documentation for further information.

The @code{aligned} attribute can also be used for functions 
(@pxref{Function Attributes}.)

@item cleanup (@var{cleanup_function})
@cindex @code{cleanup} attribute
The @code{cleanup} attribute runs a function when the variable goes
out of scope.  This attribute can only be applied to auto function
scope variables; it may not be applied to parameters or variables
with static storage duration.  The function must take one parameter,
a pointer to a type compatible with the variable.  The return value
of the function (if any) is ignored.

If @option{-fexceptions} is enabled, then @var{cleanup_function}
will be run during the stack unwinding that happens during the
processing of the exception.  Note that the @code{cleanup} attribute
does not allow the exception to be caught, only to perform an action.
It is undefined what happens if @var{cleanup_function} does not
return normally.

@item common
@itemx nocommon
@cindex @code{common} attribute
@cindex @code{nocommon} attribute
@opindex fcommon
@opindex fno-common
The @code{common} attribute requests GCC to place a variable in
``common'' storage.  The @code{nocommon} attribute requests the
opposite---to allocate space for it directly.

These attributes override the default chosen by the
@option{-fno-common} and @option{-fcommon} flags respectively.

@item deprecated
@itemx deprecated (@var{msg})
@cindex @code{deprecated} attribute
The @code{deprecated} attribute results in a warning if the variable
is used anywhere in the source file.  This is useful when identifying
variables that are expected to be removed in a future version of a
program.  The warning also includes the location of the declaration
of the deprecated variable, to enable users to easily find further
information about why the variable is deprecated, or what they should
do instead.  Note that the warning only occurs for uses:

@smallexample
extern int old_var __attribute__ ((deprecated));
extern int old_var;
int new_fn () @{ return old_var; @}
@end smallexample

results in a warning on line 3 but not line 2.  The optional msg
argument, which must be a string, will be printed in the warning if
present.

The @code{deprecated} attribute can also be used for functions and
types (@pxref{Function Attributes}, @pxref{Type Attributes}.)

@item mode (@var{mode})
@cindex @code{mode} attribute
This attribute specifies the data type for the declaration---whichever
type corresponds to the mode @var{mode}.  This in effect lets you
request an integer or floating point type according to its width.

You may also specify a mode of @samp{byte} or @samp{__byte__} to
indicate the mode corresponding to a one-byte integer, @samp{word} or
@samp{__word__} for the mode of a one-word integer, and @samp{pointer}
or @samp{__pointer__} for the mode used to represent pointers.

@item packed
@cindex @code{packed} attribute
The @code{packed} attribute specifies that a variable or structure field
should have the smallest possible alignment---one byte for a variable,
and one bit for a field, unless you specify a larger value with the
@code{aligned} attribute.

Here is a structure in which the field @code{x} is packed, so that it
immediately follows @code{a}:

@smallexample
struct foo
@{
  char a;
  int x[2] __attribute__ ((packed));
@};
@end smallexample

@emph{Note:} The 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 series of GCC ignore the
@code{packed} attribute on bit-fields of type @code{char}.  This has
been fixed in GCC 4.4 but the change can lead to differences in the
structure layout.  See the documentation of
@option{-Wpacked-bitfield-compat} for more information.

@item section ("@var{section-name}")
@cindex @code{section} variable attribute
Normally, the compiler places the objects it generates in sections like
@code{data} and @code{bss}.  Sometimes, however, you need additional sections,
or you need certain particular variables to appear in special sections,
for example to map to special hardware.  The @code{section}
attribute specifies that a variable (or function) lives in a particular
section.  For example, this small program uses several specific section names:

@smallexample
struct duart a __attribute__ ((section ("DUART_A"))) = @{ 0 @};
struct duart b __attribute__ ((section ("DUART_B"))) = @{ 0 @};
char stack[10000] __attribute__ ((section ("STACK"))) = @{ 0 @};
int init_data __attribute__ ((section ("INITDATA")));

main()
@{
  /* @r{Initialize stack pointer} */
  init_sp (stack + sizeof (stack));

  /* @r{Initialize initialized data} */
  memcpy (&init_data, &data, &edata - &data);

  /* @r{Turn on the serial ports} */
  init_duart (&a);
  init_duart (&b);
@}
@end smallexample

@noindent
Use the @code{section} attribute with
@emph{global} variables and not @emph{local} variables,
as shown in the example.

You may use the @code{section} attribute with initialized or
uninitialized global variables but the linker requires
each object be defined once, with the exception that uninitialized
variables tentatively go in the @code{common} (or @code{bss}) section
and can be multiply ``defined''.  Using the @code{section} attribute
will change what section the variable goes into and may cause the
linker to issue an error if an uninitialized variable has multiple
definitions.  You can force a variable to be initialized with the
@option{-fno-common} flag or the @code{nocommon} attribute.

Some file formats do not support arbitrary sections so the @code{section}
attribute is not available on all platforms.
If you need to map the entire contents of a module to a particular
section, consider using the facilities of the linker instead.

@item shared
@cindex @code{shared} variable attribute
On Microsoft Windows, in addition to putting variable definitions in a named
section, the section can also be shared among all running copies of an
executable or DLL@.  For example, this small program defines shared data
by putting it in a named section @code{shared} and marking the section
shareable:

@smallexample
int foo __attribute__((section ("shared"), shared)) = 0;

int
main()
@{
  /* @r{Read and write foo.  All running
     copies see the same value.}  */
  return 0;
@}
@end smallexample

@noindent
You may only use the @code{shared} attribute along with @code{section}
attribute with a fully initialized global definition because of the way
linkers work.  See @code{section} attribute for more information.

The @code{shared} attribute is only available on Microsoft Windows@.

@item tls_model ("@var{tls_model}")
@cindex @code{tls_model} attribute
The @code{tls_model} attribute sets thread-local storage model
(@pxref{Thread-Local}) of a particular @code{__thread} variable,
overriding @option{-ftls-model=} command line switch on a per-variable
basis.
The @var{tls_model} argument should be one of @code{global-dynamic},
@code{local-dynamic}, @code{initial-exec} or @code{local-exec}.

Not all targets support this attribute.

@item unused
This attribute, attached to a variable, means that the variable is meant
to be possibly unused.  GCC will not produce a warning for this
variable.

@item used
This attribute, attached to a variable, means that the variable must be
emitted even if it appears that the variable is not referenced.

@item vector_size (@var{bytes})
This attribute specifies the vector size for the variable, measured in
bytes.  For example, the declaration:

@smallexample
int foo __attribute__ ((vector_size (16)));
@end smallexample

@noindent
causes the compiler to set the mode for @code{foo}, to be 16 bytes,
divided into @code{int} sized units.  Assuming a 32-bit int (a vector of
4 units of 4 bytes), the corresponding mode of @code{foo} will be V4SI@.

This attribute is only applicable to integral and float scalars,
although arrays, pointers, and function return values are allowed in
conjunction with this construct.

Aggregates with this attribute are invalid, even if they are of the same
size as a corresponding scalar.  For example, the declaration:

@smallexample
struct S @{ int a; @};
struct S  __attribute__ ((vector_size (16))) foo;
@end smallexample

@noindent
is invalid even if the size of the structure is the same as the size of
the @code{int}.

@item selectany
The @code{selectany} attribute causes an initialized global variable to
have link-once semantics.  When multiple definitions of the variable are
encountered by the linker, the first is selected and the remainder are
discarded.  Following usage by the Microsoft compiler, the linker is told
@emph{not} to warn about size or content differences of the multiple
definitions.

Although the primary usage of this attribute is for POD types, the
attribute can also be applied to global C++ objects that are initialized
by a constructor.  In this case, the static initialization and destruction
code for the object is emitted in each translation defining the object,
but the calls to the constructor and destructor are protected by a
link-once guard variable.

The @code{selectany} attribute is only available on Microsoft Windows
targets.  You can use @code{__declspec (selectany)} as a synonym for
@code{__attribute__ ((selectany))} for compatibility with other
compilers.

@item weak
The @code{weak} attribute is described in @ref{Function Attributes}.

@item dllimport
The @code{dllimport} attribute is described in @ref{Function Attributes}.

@item dllexport
The @code{dllexport} attribute is described in @ref{Function Attributes}.

@end table

@subsection Blackfin Variable Attributes

Three attributes are currently defined for the Blackfin.

@table @code
@item l1_data
@item l1_data_A
@item l1_data_B
@cindex @code{l1_data} variable attribute
@cindex @code{l1_data_A} variable attribute
@cindex @code{l1_data_B} variable attribute
Use these attributes on the Blackfin to place the variable into L1 Data SRAM.
Variables with @code{l1_data} attribute will be put into the specific section
named @code{.l1.data}. Those with @code{l1_data_A} attribute will be put into
the specific section named @code{.l1.data.A}. Those with @code{l1_data_B}
attribute will be put into the specific section named @code{.l1.data.B}.

@item l2
@cindex @code{l2} variable attribute
Use this attribute on the Blackfin to place the variable into L2 SRAM.
Variables with @code{l2} attribute will be put into the specific section
named @code{.l2.data}.
@end table

@subsection M32R/D Variable Attributes

One attribute is currently defined for the M32R/D@.

@table @code
@item model (@var{model-name})
@cindex variable addressability on the M32R/D
Use this attribute on the M32R/D to set the addressability of an object.
The identifier @var{model-name} is one of @code{small}, @code{medium},
or @code{large}, representing each of the code models.

Small model objects live in the lower 16MB of memory (so that their
addresses can be loaded with the @code{ld24} instruction).

Medium and large model objects may live anywhere in